History of Austria. The Habsburg Dynasty: from Austrian princes to the most powerful emperors of Europe

Coat of arms of the Counts of Habsburg

In a golden field is a scarlet lion, armed and crowned with azure.

Habsburgs

The Habsburgs were one of the most powerful royal dynasties in Europe during the Middle Ages and Modern times.

The ancestor of the Habsburgs was Count Guntram the Rich, whose domains lay in Northern Switzerland and Alsace. His grandson Radboth built the Habsburg castle near the Are River, which gave the name to the dynasty. The name of the castle, according to legend, was originally Habichtsburg ( Habichtsburg), "Hawk Castle", in honor of the hawk that landed on the newly built walls of the fortress. According to another version, the name comes from Old German hab- ford: the fortress was supposed to guard the crossing of the Are River. (The castle was lost to the Habsburgs in the 15th century; the territory in which it was located became part of the Swiss Confederation). Radbot's descendants annexed a number of possessions in Alsace (Sundgau) and most of northern Switzerland to their possessions, becoming by the middle of the 13th century one of the largest feudal families in the southwestern outskirts of Germany. The first hereditary title of the family was the title of Count of Habsburg.

Albrecht IV and Rudolf III (descendants of Radboth in the sixth generation) divided the family domains: the first received the western part, including Aargau and Sundgau, and the second lands in eastern Switzerland. The descendants of Albrecht IV were considered the main line, and the heirs of Rudolf III began to be called the title Count of Habsburg-Laufenburg. Representatives of the Laufenburg line did not play a significant role in German politics and remained, like many other German aristocratic families, a regional feudal house. Their possessions included the eastern part of Aargau, Thurgau, Klettgau, Kyburg and a number of fiefs in Burgundy. This line ended in 1460.

The entry of the Habsburgs into the European arena is associated with the name of the son of Count Albrecht IV (1218-1291). He annexed the vast principality of Kyburg to the Habsburg possessions, and in 1273 he was elected king of Germany by the German princes under the name. Having become king, he tried to strengthen central power in the Holy Roman Empire, but his main success was the victory over the Czech king in 1278, as a result of which the duchies of Austria and Styria came under control.

In 1282, the king transferred these possessions to his children and. Thus, the Habsburgs became rulers of a vast and rich Danube state, which quickly eclipsed their ancestral domains in Switzerland, Swabia and Alsace.

The new monarch was unable to get along with the Protestants, whose rebellion resulted in the Thirty Years' War, which radically changed the balance of power in Europe. The fighting ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which strengthened the position and hurt the interests of the Habsburgs (in particular, they lost all their possessions in Alsace).

In 1659, the French king dealt a new blow to the prestige of the Habsburgs - the Peace of the Pyrenees left the western part of the Spanish Netherlands, including the County of Artois, for the French. By this time it became obvious that they had won the confrontation with the Habsburgs for supremacy in Europe.

In the 19th century, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine split into the following branches:

• Imperial- all the descendants of the first Austrian emperor belong to it. Its representatives returned to Russia after World War II, abandoning the noble prefix "von". This branch is now headed by Charles of Habsburg-Lorraine, grandson of the last Austrian Emperor.
• Tuscan- descendants of the brother who received Tuscany in exchange for the lost Lorraine. After the Risorgimento, the Tuscan Habsburgs returned to Vienna. Now it is the most numerous of the Habsburg branches.
• Teshenskaya- descendants of Karl Ludwig, younger brother. Now this branch is represented by several lines.
• Hungarian- she is represented by her childless brother, Joseph, Palatine of Hungary.
• Modena(Austrian Este) - descendants of Ferdinand Charles, the sixth son of the Emperor. This branch was stopped in 1876. In 1875, the title of Duke of Este was transferred to Franz Ferdinand, and after his assassination in 1914 in Sarajevo - to Robert, the second son, and on his mother's side, a descendant of the original Modena Estes. The current head of this line, Karl Otto Lorenz, is married to the Belgian Princess Astrid and lives in Belgium.

In addition to the five main ones, there are two morganatic branches of the Habsburgs:

• Hohenbergs- descendants of the unequal marriage of Archduke Franz Ferdinand with Sophia Chotek. The Hohenbergs, although they are the eldest among the living Habsburgs, do not claim primacy in the dynasty. This branch is now headed by Georg Hohenberg, Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, former Austrian ambassador to the Vatican.
• Merans- descendants from the marriage of Johann Baptist, the youngest son, with the daughter of the postmaster, Anna Plöchl.

Representatives of the Habsburg dynasty

King of Germany, Duke of Austria and Styria
, Duke of Austria, Styria and Carinthia
, King of Germany, King of Hungary (Albert), King of Bohemia (Albrecht), Duke of Austria (Albrecht V)
, Duke of Austria, Styria and Carinthia, Count of Tyrol
, Duke of Austria
, Archduke of Austria
, Duke of Western Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, Count of Tyrol

, Duke of Swabia
, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, Archduke of Austria
, Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia (Charles III), King of Hungary (Charles IV)
, King of Spain
, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Germany, King of Spain (Aragon, Leon, Castile, Valencia), Count of Barcelona (Charles I), King of Sicily (Charles II), Duke of Brabant (Charles), Count of Holland (Charles II), Archduke of Austria (Charles I)

Asya Golverk, Sergei Khaimin
Compiled based on materials from the encyclopedias Britannica, Larousse, Around the World, etc.

Roman era

Very little is known about the first inhabitants of Austria. Scarce historical evidence suggests the existence of a pre-Celtic population. Around 400–300 BC Warlike Celtic tribes appeared with their own dialect, religious cults and traditions. Mixing with the ancient inhabitants, the Celts formed the kingdom of Norik.

At the beginning of the 2nd century. BC. Rome's power extended to the Danube. However, the Romans were forced to constantly fight the nomadic Germanic barbarians who invaded from the north across the Danube, which served as the border of Roman civilization. The Romans built fortified military camps at Vindobona (Vienna) and at Carnuntum, 48 km from the former; in the Hoer Markt area of ​​Vienna there are remains of Roman buildings. In the middle Danube region, the Romans promoted the development of cities, crafts, trade and mining, and built roads and buildings. Emperor Marcus Aurelius (died at Vindobona in 180 AD) composed part of his immortal Meditations at Carnunt. The Romans implanted religious pagan rituals, secular institutions and customs, Latin language and literature among the local population. By the 4th century. refers to the Christianization of this region.

In the 5th and 6th centuries. Germanic tribes overran most of the Roman possessions in the western part of modern Austria. Turkic-speaking nomads - the Avars - invaded the eastern and southern parts of modern Austria, and Slavic peoples - the future Slovenes, Croats and Czechs - migrated with them (or after them), among whom the Avars disappeared. In the western regions, missionaries (Irish, Franks, Angles) converted pagan Germans (Bavarians) to the Christian faith; The cities of Salzburg and Passau became centers of Christian culture. Around 774, a cathedral was built in Salzburg, and by the end of the 8th century. the local archbishop received authority over neighboring dioceses. Monasteries were built (for example, Kremsmunster), and from these islands of civilization the conversion of the Slavs to Christianity began.

Hungarian invasion of the East March

Charlemagne (742–814) defeated the Avars and began to encourage German colonization of the East March. German settlers received privileges: they were given plots of land, which were cultivated by slaves. Cities on the Middle Danube flourished again.

Frankish rule in Austria ended abruptly. The Carolingian Empire was mercilessly devastated by the Hungarians. These warlike tribes were destined to have a lasting and profound influence on life in the middle part of the Danube valley. In 907, the Hungarians captured the Eastern March and from here carried out bloody raids into Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine.

Otto I, German Emperor and founder of the Holy Roman Empire (962), defeated a powerful Hungarian army in 955 on the Lech River near Augsburg. Pushed east, the Hungarians gradually settled downstream in the fertile Hungarian Plain (where their descendants still live) and adopted the Christian faith.

Babenberg board

The place of the expelled Hungarians was taken by German settlers. The Bavarian Eastmark, which at that time covered the area around Vienna, was transferred in 976 as a fief to the Babenberg family, whose family holdings were located in the Main valley in Germany. In 996, the territory of the Eastern March was named Ostarriki for the first time.

One of the outstanding representatives of the Babenberg dynasty was Macrgrave Leopold III (reigned 1095–1136). The ruins of his castle on Mount Leopoldsberg near Vienna have been preserved. Nearby are the Klosterneuburg monastery and the majestic Cistercian Abbey of Heiligenstadt, burial place of Austrian rulers. The monks in these monasteries cultivated the fields, taught children, compiled chronicles and cared for the sick, significantly contributing to the education of the surrounding population.

German settlers completed the development of the Eastern March. Methods of cultivating land and growing grapes were improved and new villages were founded. Many castles were built along the Danube and inland, such as Dürnstein and Aggstein. During the period of the Crusades, cities prospered and the wealth of the rulers grew. In 1156, the Emperor awarded the title of Duke to the Margrave of Austria, Henry II. The land of Styria, south of Austria, was inherited by the Babenbergs (1192), and parts of Upper Austria and Krotna were acquired in 1229.

Austria entered its heyday during the reign of Duke Leopold VI, who died in 1230, having become famous as a merciless fighter against heretics and Muslims. The monasteries were showered with generous gifts; the newly created monastic orders, the Franciscans and Dominicans, were cordially received in the duchy, poets and singers were encouraged.

Vienna, which had been in decline for a long time, became the residence of the Duke in 1146; Great benefit was derived from the development of trade thanks to the Crusades. In 1189 it was first mentioned as a civitas (city), in 1221 it received city rights and in 1244 it confirmed them by receiving formal city privileges, which determined the rights and obligations of citizens, regulated the activities of foreign traders and provided for the formation of a city council. In 1234, a more humane and enlightened law on their rights was issued for Jewish residents than in other places, which remained in force until the expulsion of Jews from Vienna almost 200 years later. At the beginning of the 13th century. The city's borders were expanded and new fortifications emerged.

The Babenberg dynasty died out in 1246 when Duke Frederick II died in battle with the Hungarians, leaving no heirs. The struggle for Austria began, an economically and strategically important territory.

Beginning of the Habsburg dynasty

The Habsburgs are the most famous aristocratic family in Germany, playing an extremely important role in world history.

Over the course of several centuries, the Habsburgs turned from an uninfluential count family into the first family of Europe. The Habsburg secret is incredible. Three times men from this family led the first bride of Europe to the altar. Plus, of course, constant wars for the benefits obtained as a result of these marriages.

And the expression “Austria (that is, the Habsburgs) are called upon to rule the world!” was born. What is the story of the Habsburgs' rise to world domination? And what led to the collapse of great hopes?

The ancestor of the Habsburgs was Guntram the Rich, Count of Lower Alsace, Breisgau and Aargau, who lived in the 10th century, although modern researchers have not found confirmation of his real existence. Coming from Alsace, the first Habsburgs settled in Northern Switzerland. As owners of the Aar River valley and the Aargau district, they built their ancestral castle there, after which they began to be called Counts von Habsburg.

The origin of the name of the castle is interpreted in two ways - either “hawk castle”, or “castle at the ford, at the crossing”. Over time, the Counts of Habsburg became the owners of almost all of northern Switzerland and a very strong and influential family in southwestern Switzerland.

Count Albrecht IV von Habsburg (died in 1241) divided the family estates with his brother Rudolf III - this is how the first division of the lands of the Habsburg family took place (there would be several such divisions in subsequent centuries). The origins of the power of the Habsburg Monarchy were the son of Albrecht IV - Count Rudolf IV.

The Pope transferred the vacant throne of the duchy to Margrave Hermann of Baden (reigned 1247–1250). However, the Austrian bishops and feudal nobility elected the Czech king Přemysl II (Otakar) (1230–1278) as duke, who strengthened his rights to the Austrian throne by marrying the sister of the latter Babenberg. Przemysl captured Styria and received Carinthia and part of Carniola under a marriage contract. Přemysl sought the crown of the Holy Roman Empire, but on September 29, 1273, Count Rudolf of Habsburg (1218–1291), respected both for his political prudence and for his ability to avoid disputes with the papacy, was elected king. Przemysl refused to recognize his election, so Rudolf resorted to force and defeated his opponent. In 1282 - one of the key dates in Austrian history - Rudolph declared the lands of Austria that belonged to him to be the hereditary possession of the House of Habsburg

But Rudolf I turned out to be a successful owner of new lands. In 1278, he managed to defeat the Czech king and became the owner of the duchies of Austria and Styria - this was how the cornerstone was laid in building the personal empire of the Habsburgs. The excessive strengthening of the Habsburgs prompted the princes to stop electing representatives of this family to the imperial throne for a long time.

In turn, the Habsburgs annexed Carinthia and Tyrol to their possessions. In 1306, for the first time, a member of the Habsburg family, Rudolf III, became king of Bohemia (Czech Republic), but was unable to cope with the rebellious Czech nobility and died a year later.

Duke of Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Tyrol Rudolf IV (1339-1365) was the first of the Habsburgs to be born in Vienna, and the first Austrian in his family. He became famous for the following: in 1358, Emperor Charles IV of the Luxembourg family, King of Bohemia, issued the so-called “Golden Bull”, according to which the emperor was now elected by 7 prince-electors (electors). The Austrian Duke was not among these electors (the irony here is that the emperor was punishing his own son-in-law: Rudolf IV, in retaliation, published the “Privelegium Maius” - a collection of skillfully forged decrees of previous emperors).

It was there that reference was made to Rudolf's new title - Archduke. The new title placed the ruler of Austria on the second level after the emperor in the hierarchy of German rulers. Emperor Charles IV reacted extremely hostile to Rudolf IV's antics, he even forced the duke not to use the title "Archduke" for some reason, he helped Rudolf's enemies in every possible way, incited the Swiss dissatisfied with his rule against him, but in the end the emperor capitulated. So under Rudolf IV The Habsburgs began to bear the title of archdukes (1359).

Rudolf also became famous for signing documents with his younger brothers, where they agreed that all the sons of the duke would be given an indivisible possession; this rule was called the “Rudolf rule”, so Duke Rudolf IV was the first of the Habsburgs to try to preserve the family domains from fragmentation , which means consolidating the position of the Habsburg family in Europe, achieved with such difficulty!

Duke Rudolf IV (reigned 1358–1365) made plans to annex the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary to his possessions and dreamed of achieving complete independence from the Holy Roman Empire. Rudolf founded the University of Vienna (1365), financed the expansion of St. Stephen and supported trade and crafts. He died suddenly, without realizing his ambitious plans.

However, after the death of the duke-forger of papers, it turned out that he had worked all his life in vain: in 1379, the younger brothers of the deceased Rudolf IV calmly divided Austria: Albrecht III became Duke of Austria proper, and Leopold III became Duke of Styria, Carinthia and Tyrol, this section known as the division into the Albertine and Leopoldine lines of the Habsburgs.

From the very beginning, the Habsburgs considered their lands to be private property. Despite the struggle for the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and family discord, the dukes of the House of Habsburg continued to expand the borders of their possessions. An attempt had already been made to annex the land of Vorarlberg in the southwest, but this was completed only by 1523. Tyrol was annexed to the Habsburg possessions in 1363, as a result of which the Duchy of Austria moved closer to the Apennine Peninsula. In 1374, the part of Istria facing the northern tip of the Adriatic Sea was annexed, and 8 years later the port of Trieste voluntarily joined Austria to free itself from Venetian domination. Representative (estate) assemblies were created, consisting of nobles, clergy and townspeople.

Economy of Austria during the Renaissance

During periods of peace, trade flourished with neighboring principalities and even with distant Russia. Goods were transported to Hungary, the Czech Republic and Germany along the Danube; in volume this trade was comparable to trade along the great Rhine route. Trade with Venice and other northern Italian cities developed. Roads improved, making it easier to transport goods.

Germany served as a profitable market for Austrian wines and grain, and Hungary bought fabrics. Household iron products were exported to Hungary. In turn, Austria bought Hungarian livestock and minerals. In Salzkammergut (Lower Austrian Eastern Alps) large quantities of table salt were mined. Domestic needs for most products, except clothing, were provided by domestic manufacturers. Craftsmen of the same specialty, united in a workshop, often settled in certain urban areas, as evidenced by the names of streets in the old corners of Vienna. Wealthy members of the guilds not only controlled affairs in their industry, but also participated in the management of the city.

Political successes of the Habsburgs

Frederick III. With the election of Duke Albrecht V as German king in 1438 (under the name Albrecht II), Habsburg prestige reached its apogee. By marrying the heiress to the royal throne of the Czech Republic and Hungary, Albrecht increased the possessions of the dynasty. However, his power in Bohemia remained nominal, and both crowns were soon lost to the Habsburgs. The Duke died on the way to the site of the battle with the Turks, and during the reign of his son Vladislav, the Habsburg possessions decreased significantly. After the death of Vladislav, ties with the Czech Republic and Hungary were completely severed, and Austria itself was divided between the heirs.

In 1452, Albrecht V's uncle Frederick V (1415–1493) was crowned Holy Roman Emperor under the name Frederick III. In 1453 he became an Archduke of Austria, and from that time until the formal dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 (except for a short period in the 18th century), the Habsburgs retained the imperial crown.

Despite endless wars, as well as revolts of the nobles and residents of Vienna, Frederick III managed to expand his possessions, annexing part of Istria and the port of Rijeka (1471). Frederick believed that the Habsburg dynasty was destined to conquer the whole world. His motto was the formula “AEIOU” ( Alles Erdreich ist Oesterreich untertan, “The whole land is subordinate to Austria”). He wrote this abbreviation on books and ordered it to be carved on public buildings. Frederick married his son and heir Maximilian (1459–1519) to Mary of Burgundy. As a dowry, the Habsburgs received the Netherlands and lands in what is now France. During this period, the rivalry between the Austrian Habsburgs and the French kingdom began, which continued until the 18th century.

Maximilian I (king in 1486, emperor in 1508), who is sometimes considered the second collector of the Habsburg possessions, acquired, in addition to the possessions in Burgundy, the districts of Gorotia and Gradisca d'Isonzo and small territories in the southern parts of modern Austria. He made an agreement with the Czech-Hungarian king to transfer the Czech-Hungarian crown to Maximilian in the event that Vladislav II died without leaving a male heir.

Thanks to skillful alliances, successful inheritances and advantageous marriages, the Habsburg family achieved impressive power. Maximilian found wonderful matches for his son Philip and his grandson Ferdinand. The first married Juana, heiress of Spain with its vast empire. The domains of their son, Emperor Charles V, surpassed those of any other European monarch before or after him.

Maximilian arranged for Ferdinand to marry the heiress of Vladislav, King of Bohemia and Hungary. His marriage policy was motivated by dynastic ambitions, but also by the desire to transform Danubian Europe into a united Christian bastion against Islam. However, the apathy of the people in the face of the Muslim threat made this task difficult.

Along with minor reforms in government, Maximilian encouraged innovations in the military field that foreshadowed the creation of a regular standing army instead of a military aristocracy of warrior knights.

Expensive marriage contracts, financial disarray and military expenses were draining the state treasury, and Maximilian resorted to large loans, mainly from the wealthy Fugger magnates of Augsburg. In return, they received mining concessions in Tyrol and other areas. From the same source, funds were taken to bribe the electoral votes of the Holy Roman Emperor.

Maximilian was a typical prince of the Renaissance. He was a patron of literature and education, supporting scientists and artists such as Conrad Peutinger, a humanist from Augsburg and an expert on Roman antiquities, and the German artist Albrecht Dürer, who, in particular, illustrated books written by the emperor. Other Habsburg rulers and the aristocracy encouraged the fine arts and amassed rich collections of paintings and sculptures that later became the pride of Austria.

In 1519, Maximilian's grandson Charles was elected king, and in 1530 he became Holy Roman Emperor under the name Charles V. Charles ruled the empire, Austria, Bohemia, the Netherlands, Spain and the Spanish overseas possessions. In 1521, he made his brother, Archduke Ferdinand, ruler of the Habsburg lands along the Danube, which included Austria proper, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola and Tyrol.

Accession of the Czech Republic and Hungary

In 1526, the troops of Suleiman the Magnificent invaded Hungary. Civil strife within the country's ruling class facilitated the victory of the Turks, and on August 29 the flower of the Hungarian cavalry was destroyed on the field of Mohács, and the capital Buda capitulated. The young king Louis II, who fled after the defeat at Mohács, died. After his death, the Czech Republic (with Moravia and Silesia) and Western Hungary went to the Habsburgs.

Until then, the inhabitants of the Habsburg domains spoke almost exclusively German, with the exception of the population of small Slavic enclaves. However, after the annexation of Hungary and the Czech Republic, the Danube Power became a very diverse state in terms of population. This happened just at a time when mononational states were taking shape in Western Europe.

The Czech Republic and Hungary had their own brilliant pasts, their own national saints and heroes, traditions and languages. Each of these countries had its own national estates and provincial diets, which were dominated by wealthy magnates and clergy, but there were far fewer nobles and townspeople. Royal power was more nominal than real. The Habsburg Empire included many peoples - Hungarians, Slovaks, Czechs, Serbs, Germans, Ukrainians and Romanians.

The court in Vienna took a number of measures to integrate the Czech Republic and Hungary into the Habsburg family domains. Central government departments were reorganized to meet the needs of the expanding power. The palace chancellery and the privy council began to play a prominent role, advising the emperor mainly on issues of international politics and legislation. The first steps were taken to replace the tradition of electing monarchs in both countries with Habsburg hereditary law.

Turkish invasion

Only the threat of Turkish conquest helped unite Austria, Hungary and the Czech Republic. Suleiman's 200,000-strong army advanced along the wide Danube valley and in 1529 approached the walls of Vienna. A month later, the garrison and the inhabitants of Vienna forced the Turks to lift the siege and retreat to Hungary. But wars between the Austrian and Ottoman empires continued intermittently for two generations; and almost two centuries passed until the Habsburg armies completely expelled the Turks from historical Hungary.

The Rise and Fall of Protestantism

The areas where Hungarians lived became the center for the spread of reformed Christianity on the Danube. Many landowners and peasants in Hungary accepted Calvinism and Lutheranism. Luther's teaching attracted many German-speaking townspeople; in Transylvania, the Unitarian movement aroused widespread sympathy. In the eastern part of the Hungarian lands proper, Calvinism prevailed, and Lutheranism became widespread among some of the Slovaks and Germans. In the part of Hungary that came under Habsburg control, Protestantism encountered significant resistance from Catholics. The court in Vienna, which highly valued the importance of Catholicism in maintaining the absolute power of the king, proclaimed it the official religion of Hungary. Protestants were required to pay money to maintain Catholic religious institutions and for a long time were not allowed to hold government positions.

The Reformation spread unexpectedly quickly throughout Austria itself. The newly invented printing allowed both opposing religious camps to publish and distribute books and pamphlets. Princes and priests often fought for power under religious banners. A large number of believers in Austria left the Catholic Church; The ideas of the Reformation were proclaimed in the Cathedral of St. Stephen in Vienna and even in the family chapel of the ruling dynasty. Anabaptist groups (such as the Mennonites) then spread to Tyrol and Moravia. By the middle of the 16th century. a clear majority of the population of Austria seemed to have accepted Protestantism in one form or another.

However, there were three powerful factors that not only restrained the spread of the Reformation, but also contributed to the return of a large part of the neophytes to the fold of the Roman Catholic Church: the internal church reform proclaimed by the Council of Trent; The Society of Jesus (Jesuit order), whose members, as confessors, teachers and preachers, concentrated their activities on converting the families of large landowners to this faith, correctly calculating that their peasants would then follow the faith of their masters; and physical coercion carried out by the Viennese court. The conflicts culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which began in the Czech Republic, where Protestantism was deeply rooted.

In 1606–1609, Rudolf II guaranteed freedom of religion to Czech Protestants through a series of agreements. But when Ferdinand II (reigned 1619–1637) became emperor, Protestants in the Czech Republic felt their religious freedoms and civil rights were threatened. The zealous Catholic and authoritarian ruler Ferdinand II, a prominent representative of the Counter-Reformation, ordered the suppression of Protestantism in Austria itself

Thirty Years' War

In 1619, the Czech Diet refused to recognize Ferdinand as emperor and elected Elector Frederick V, Count Palatine of the Rhine, as king. This demarche led to the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. The rebels, who disagreed on all the most important issues, were united only by hatred of the Habsburgs. With the help of mercenaries from Germany, the Habsburg army completely defeated the Czech rebels in 1620 at the Battle of White Mountain near Prague.

The Czech crown was once and for all assigned to the House of Habsburg, the Diet was dispersed, and Catholicism was declared the only legitimate faith.

The estates of the Czech Protestant aristocrats, which occupied almost half the territory of the Czech Republic, were divided among the younger sons of the Catholic nobility of Europe, mainly of German origin. Until the collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1918, the Czech aristocracy spoke predominantly German and was loyal to the ruling dynasty.

During the Thirty Years' War, the population of the Habsburg Empire suffered enormous losses. The massacre was put to an end by the Peace of Westphalia (1648), according to which the Holy Roman Empire, which included Germany and Italy, virtually ceased to exist, and many princes who owned its lands were able to realize their long-standing dream of independence from the power of the emperor. However, the Habsburgs still retained the imperial crown and influence over German state affairs.

Victory over the Turks

In the second half of the 17th century. The Ottoman armies resumed their attack on Europe. The Austrians fought the Turks for control of the lower reaches of the Danube and Sava rivers. In 1683, a huge Turkish army, taking advantage of the uprising in Hungary, again besieged Vienna for two months, and again caused enormous damage to its suburbs. The city was overflowing with refugees, artillery shelling caused damage to the Cathedral of St. Stephen and other architectural monuments.

The besieged city was saved by a Polish-German army under the command of the Polish king John Sobieski. On September 12, 1683, after a fierce firefight, the Turks retreated and never returned to the walls of Vienna.

From that moment on, the Turks began to gradually lose their positions, and the Habsburgs extracted more and more benefits from their victories. When in 1687 most of Hungary, with its capital Buda, was liberated from Turkish rule, the Hungarian Diet, as a sign of gratitude, recognized the hereditary right of the Habsburg male line to the Hungarian crown. However, it was stipulated that before ascending the throne, the new king had to confirm all the “traditions, privileges and prerogatives” of the Hungarian nation.

The war against the Turks continued. Austrian troops conquered almost all of Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania and most of Slovenia, which was officially secured by the Peace of Karlowitz (1699). The Habsburgs then turned their attention to the Balkans, and in 1717 the Austrian commander Prince Eugene of Savoy captured Belgrade and invaded Serbia. The Sultan was forced to cede to the Habsburgs a small Serbian region around Belgrade and a number of other small territories. After 20 years, the Balkan territory was recaptured by the Turks; The Danube and Sava became the border between the two great powers.

Hungary, under the rule of Vienna, was devastated, its population decreased. Vast tracts of land were given to nobles loyal to the Habsburgs. Hungarian peasants moved to free lands, and foreign settlers invited by the crown - Serbs, Romanians and, above all, German Catholics - settled in the southern regions of the country. It is estimated that in 1720 Hungarians made up less than 45% of the population of Hungary, and in the 18th century. their share continued to decline. Transylvania retained a special political status when governed from Vienna.

Although Hungarian constitutional privileges and local authority were intact, and the tax benefits of the aristocracy were confirmed, the Habsburg court was able to impose its will on the Hungarian ruling elite. The aristocracy, whose land holdings grew along with its loyalty to the crown, remained loyal to the Habsburgs.

During periods of rebellion and strife in the 16th and 17th centuries. More than once it seemed that the multinational Habsburg state was on the verge of imminent collapse. However, the Viennese court continued to encourage the development of education and the arts. Important milestones in intellectual life were the founding of universities in Graz (1585), Salzburg (1623), Budapest (1635) and Innsbruck (1677).

Military successes

A regular army equipped with firearms was created in Austria. Although gunpowder was first used in war in the 14th century, it took 300 years for guns and artillery to become truly formidable weapons. Artillery pieces made of iron or bronze were so heavy that at least 10 horses or 40 oxen had to be harnessed to move them. To protect against bullets, armor was needed, which was burdensome for both people and horses. The fortress walls were made thicker to withstand artillery fire. The disdain for the infantry gradually disappeared, and the cavalry, although reduced in number, lost almost none of its former prestige. Military operations began to largely boil down to the siege of fortified cities, which required a lot of manpower and equipment.

Prince Eugene of Savoy rebuilt the military on the model of the army of France, where he received his military education. Food was improved, troops were housed in barracks, and veterans were given land taken from the Turks. However, aristocrats from the Austrian military command soon began to obstruct the reform. The changes were not profound enough to allow Austria to win the fight against Prussia in the 18th century. However, for generations, the military and bureaucracy provided the Habsburgs with the strong support needed to maintain the integrity of the multinational state.

Economic situation

Agriculture remained the basis of the Austrian economy, but at the same time there was an increase in manufacturing production and financial capital. In the 16th century The country's industry experienced a crisis several times due to inflation caused by the import of precious metals from America to Europe. At this time, the crown no longer had to turn to moneylenders for financial help; now government credit became the source of funds. Iron was mined in quantities sufficient for the market in Styria and silver in Tyrol; in a smaller volume - coal in Silesia.

Architectural masterpieces

After the feeling of the Turkish threat disappeared, intensive construction began in the cities of the Habsburg Empire. Masters from Italy trained local designers and builders of churches and palaces. In Prague, Salzburg and especially in Vienna, buildings in the Baroque style were erected - elegant, elegant, with rich external and internal decoration. Lushly decorated facades, wide staircases and luxurious gardens became characteristic features of the city residences of the Austrian aristocracy. Among them, the magnificent Belvedere Palace with a park, built by Prince Eugene of Savoy, stood out.

The ancient court seat in Vienna, the Hofburg, has been expanded and embellished. The Chancellery of the Court, the huge Karlskirche church, which took 20 years to build, and the imperial summer palace and park in Schönbrunn are just the most striking buildings in a city that shone with its architectural splendor. Throughout the monarchy, churches and monasteries damaged or destroyed during the war were restored. The Benedictine monastery in Melk, located on a cliff above the Danube, is a typical example of Baroque in rural Austria and a symbol of the triumph of the Counter-Reformation.

The Rise of Vienna

Vienna, which finally became an archbishopric, was the center of Catholic Germany and the capital of the Habsburg Empire. People of art and merchants from all over Austria, from the Czech Republic and Hungary, from Spain and the Netherlands, from Italy and southern Germany flocked to the city.

The court and aristocracy encouraged the development of theater, fine arts and music. Along with popular theatrical performances, Italian-style opera flourished. The emperor himself wrote operas in which the archduchesses played. Local folk music, which has made Vienna famous throughout the world, originated in the city's taverns, havens for singers and musicians. During this period, the foundations were laid for what would make the Habsburg seat the musical capital of Europe.

Austria in the 18th century

Throughout the 1700s, Austria survived severe military trials, achieved new heights of power and prestige, and achieved significant cultural achievements.

At first, the prospects for development seemed far from bright. Luck turned away from Emperor Charles VI (reigned 1711–1740). Having no male heirs, he feared that the multinational state would be plunged into internal conflicts or dismembered by foreign powers after his death. To avoid this, the court entered into negotiations with the Land Diets and foreign states in order to achieve recognition of Charles's daughter, Maria Theresa, as heir to the throne.

These efforts were initially successful. The official document, known as the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, stipulated that all Habsburg possessions would remain indivisible at all times and be handed down according to seniority. However, when approving this decision, the Sejms of the Czech Republic and the Hungarian lands made it clear that if the Habsburg dynasty faded away, they would be able to choose another ruling house.

Empress Maria Theresa

In accordance with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, Maria Theresa (reigned 1740–1780) ascended the Austrian throne (1740). A heavy burden of responsibility fell on the shoulders of the 23-year-old empress. King Frederick II of Prussia immediately laid claim to most of the prosperous province of Silesia, which was part of the Czech kingdom.

The Prussian monarch did not recognize Maria Theresa's right to the inheritance of Charles VI and declared his intention to free half of the Silesian population, which professed Protestantism, from Catholic Austria. The King of Prussia attacked Silesia without any formal reason or declaration of war, which was contrary to accepted international norms. Thus began a long struggle between Prussia and Austria for dominance in Central Europe, which ended with the final military defeat of Austria in 1866. France and a number of small German principalities took part in the attack on the Habsburg possessions, seeking to expand their possessions.

Unprepared for war and worse armed, Austria easily succumbed to the rapid onslaught of the enemy. At times it began to seem that the monarchy was falling apart. Stubborn and courageous, Maria Theresa took a decisive step by turning to her Hungarian subjects for help. In response to promises of real concessions, the Hungarian magnates demonstrated their loyalty, but their help was insufficient. In 1742, most of Silesia went to Prussia. Despite repeated attempts by Austria to regain the lost province, Prussia held the land until the end of World War II.

In an effort to improve the country's international position, the Empress arranged dynastic marriages for her children (those of the 16 who reached maturity). Thus, Marie Antoinette became the bride of the heir to the throne of France, the future King Louis XVI.

Thanks to the turbulent political events in Europe, Austria made a number of territorial acquisitions. At the beginning of the century, the Spanish Netherlands (present-day Belgium) was annexed, which remained a kind of colony until 1797. Rich provinces in Italy were acquired: Tuscany, most of Lombardy, Naples, Parma and Sardinia (the last three were briefly held by Austria).

Largely contrary to the moral beliefs of Maria Theresa, although in accordance with the wishes of her son Joseph, Austria sided with Russia and Prussia in the first partition of Poland (1772) and received the principalities of Auschwitz and Zatorsk, the southern part of the Krakow and Sandomierz voivodeships, Ruska (without the Kholm land ) and Belz Voivodeship. About a million people lived in this territory, there were fertile lands and salt mines. 23 years later, another part of Poland came under Austrian rule, with its ancient capital Krakow. Claims were also made to the northern part of the Principality of Moldova southeast of Galicia. The area was controlled by the Turks; in 1775 it was incorporated into the Habsburg state under the name Bukovina.

Internal reforms

Measures were taken to improve the mechanism of public administration in Austria and the Czech Republic, strengthen the unity and stability of the provinces, overcome chronic financial deficits and improve the state of the economy as a whole. In all these areas, Prussia served as a model and inspiration. In Austria, it was believed that modernization would increase the military power of the state, confirm Austria's claims to great power status and prepare the way for weakening the power of King Frederick of Prussia.

The Austrian military, public administration and tax system were completely overhauled. The central place in the reorganization of state power was occupied by the State Council, which had advisory functions and consisted of specialists from each of the departments of internal affairs. A new supreme court was created, and the judicial system was separated from the government system. In accordance with the trends characteristic of the Enlightenment, new legal codes were issued. The foreign policy and military departments underwent a radical renewal.

Military spending increased and centralized recruitment was introduced. The increasingly complex organization of the armed forces required the involvement of more civilian workers. To increase the efficiency of public administration and ensure centralization, the number of civil servants in Vienna and in the provinces was expanded; they were now recruited from the middle class. In the hereditary lands of the crown and in the Czech Republic, local landtags lost a number of important functions, and crown officials were given a wide range of powers, ranging from supervision of serfs to jurisdiction in matters of police and education.

The reforms also affected the villages. According to the so-called corvée patents (1771–1778), peasant corvée was limited to three days a week.

In the economic sphere, the development of manufacturing production was encouraged. Despite the resistance of traditional workshop associations, new, modern industrial enterprises were created. Hungary was to serve as a market for industrial products from Austria and a breadbasket for Austrian cities. A universal income tax and a unified system of border and internal duties were introduced. In order to expand international trade, a small merchant fleet was created, and the ports in Trieste and Rijeka were modernized. Companies arose that carried out trade relations with southern Asia.

Enlightened despotism

Maria Theresa's son, Joseph II, who became his mother's co-regent after 1765, often clashed with her over issues of public policy. In 1780 he took the reins of government into his own hands. The new emperor sought to strengthen the power of Austria and its unity, and improve the system of government. He was convinced that the personal power of the sovereign should be unlimited and that he should instill in the consciousness of the peoples inhabiting the country the spirit of a common homeland. Decrees were issued declaring German the state language, which made it possible to unify the sphere of public administration and speed up judicial procedures. The powers of the Hungarian Diet were curtailed, and soon it ceased its activities altogether.

Demonstrating enlightenment and good will, Joseph II proclaimed the equality of all subjects before the court and in the collection of taxes. Print and theater censorship was temporarily relaxed. The amount of quitrent paid by peasants was now regulated by crown officials, and the amount of taxes levied depended on the income from the land.

Although Joseph II declared himself a defender of Catholicism, he waged a vigorous struggle against the power of the Pope. In fact, he sought to transform the church in his domains into an instrument of the state, independent of Rome. The clergy were deprived of their tithes and were forced to study in seminaries under government control, and archbishops were required to formally swear an oath of loyalty to the crown. Church courts were abolished, and marriage began to be viewed as a civil contract outside the jurisdiction of the church. The number of religious holidays was reduced, and the decoration of religious buildings was regulated by the state. Approximately every third of the monasteries was closed.

Joseph II issued a decree on universal and compulsory schooling. Funds for training were to be allocated by the nobility and local authorities. Although this measure was not fully implemented, school attendance increased significantly.

Joseph II died untimely in 1790. His brother, Leopold II, who had proven himself as ruler of Italian Tuscany, quickly restored the shaky order. Serfdom in Hungary was restored, and in Austria the peasant, although he remained personally free, fell into even more severe dependence on the landowner.

The Hungarian Diet, which had not been convened under Joseph II, was reconvened and confirmed the old liberties and constitutional rights of the kingdom. Leopold II also made a number of political concessions to the Czech Republic and was crowned as the Czech king. To enlist the support of the Czech educated class, in which a sense of national identity was awakening, a department of the Czech language was established at the University of Prague.

Achievements in the field of culture

By decree of Joseph II, the “Palace Theater” (founded by Maria Theresa in 1741) was renamed in 1776 to the “Court National Theater” (“Burgtheater”), which maintained a high level of performance until the 20th century. Vienna was famous for its musical culture, the Italians set the tone. In 1729, Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi) arrived in Vienna, taking the position of court poet and librettist, he wrote texts for operas by the Neapolitan Niccolo Jommelli and Christoph von Gluck.

The great composers Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, representatives of the so-called, worked in Vienna. Viennese classical school. Melody from string quartet op. 76 No. 3 formed the basis of the Austrian national anthem (1797), and later the German anthem.

The era of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars

Like all of Europe, Austria suffered the consequences of the French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte. The thirst for territorial conquest, the dynastic relationship with the French queen Marie Antoinette, sister of Joseph II and Leopold II, the fear that the ideas of the French Revolution would influence the various peoples of the monarchy, the growth of patriotism, especially among the German-speaking population - the combination of all these various tendencies and motives made Austria intransigent enemy of France.

Wars against France

Military operations against France began in 1792 and continued intermittently until the fall of 1815. More than once during this time, the Austrian armies were defeated, twice Napoleon's grenadiers stormed the famous Vienna, which in terms of population (about 230 thousand people) in Europe was second only to London and Paris. The Habsburg army suffered heavy losses, the suffering and hardships of residents of large and small cities are comparable to the hardships experienced in the world wars of the 20th century. Galloping inflation, the collapse of the tax system and chaos in the economy brought the state to the brink of disaster.

More than once Napoleon dictated peace terms to Austria. Emperor Franz I was forced to marry his daughter Marie Louise to Napoleon (1810), whom he had previously called “the French adventurer.” The peasants of Tyrol, led by innkeeper Andreas Hofer, rebelled and resisted Napoleonic troops. Austrian troops inflicted a painful defeat on the French at Aspern near Vienna (1809), but were defeated by Napoleon a few days later at Wagram. The Austrian army was commanded by Archduke Charles, whose military glory rivaled that of Prince Eugene of Savoy: their equestrian statues adorn Heldenplatz (“Heroes' Square”) in the center of Vienna. Austrian Field Marshal Karl Schwarzenberg commanded the Allied forces that defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813.

Austrian Empire

Franz I in 1804 gave his state the name Austrian Empire. By the will of Napoleon, the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the crown of which for almost four centuries was actually inherited in the Habsburg family, ceased to exist (1806).

Congress of Vienna

The territorial changes in Europe made during the Napoleonic era also affected Austria. It is significant that the international congress, which laid the foundations for a peaceful order after the overthrow of Bonaparte, was convened in Vienna. For several months in 1814–1815, the Habsburg capital was the meeting place for senior politicians of European states large and small. A wide-ranging network of Austrian spies monitored the arriving high-ranking persons.

The Viennese debate was presided over by Count (later Prince) Clemens Metternich, Foreign Minister and later Chancellor of Austria. At the congress, he successfully ensured a secure position for the House of Habsburg in Europe and prevented Russia from expanding its influence into the central part of the continent.

Austria was forced to abandon Belgium, but received substantial compensation for this. Dalmatia, the western part of Istria, the islands in the Adriatic that previously belonged to Venice, the former Venetian Republic itself and the neighboring Italian province of Lombardy came under the scepter of Vienna. Representatives of the Habsburg family received the crowns of Tuscany, Parma and Modena. Austria enjoyed strong influence in the Papal States and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. As a result, the Apennine Peninsula actually became an appendage of the Danube monarchy. Much of Polish Galicia was returned to Austria, and in 1846 the small Republic of Krakow, the only free part of Poland retained by the peacekeepers in 1815, was annexed.

Opinions about the form of future German statehood were sharply divided. Metternich managed to prevent the creation of a strong union, and a loose confederation was formed - the German Confederation. It covered the German-speaking states of Europe and that part of Austria that was part of the abolished Holy Roman Empire. Austria received the post of permanent chairman of the confederation.

Franz I and Metternich

During the first half of the 19th century. The leading figure in the public life of Austria was Emperor Franz I. As Chancellor of the Empire, Metternich had significant political weight. After the excesses of the French Revolution and the horrors and unrest caused by the Napoleonic Wars, he strove for order and internal harmony. The Chancellor repeatedly advised creating a parliament from representatives of the different nations of Austria and giving the provincial diets real powers, but the emperor did not listen to his advice.

In the field of diplomacy, Metternich made a significant contribution to the preservation of peace in Europe. When the opportunity presented itself, Austrian troops were sent to suppress local uprisings, creating for themselves, their country and its first minister an odious reputation among the adherents of freedom and national unification.

Domestic policy was determined mainly by Emperor Francis I. Government officials kept the entire education sector and students under strict control, prescribing what could be read and studied. The head of the censorship department, Count Joseph Sedlnicki, banned literary works hostile to the absolutism of the emperor or religion, and organizations suspected of political heresy were persecuted. Journalists were prohibited from even using the word “constitution.”

Development of culture

Vienna's prestige as a musical capital remained high thanks to Ludwig van Beethoven. The works of Franz Schubert can be considered the pinnacle of song lyrics. Joseph Lanner and Johann Strauss the Father became famous for their waltzes.

The outstanding Austrian playwright of this period was Franz Grillparzer. Light, witty plays were written by Ferdinand Raymund and Johann Nestroy.

In the field of religion, enlightened toleration prevailed. Without the consent of the emperor, no one could be excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church. The clergy supervised education, and the Jesuits were allowed to resume their activities in the empire. Restrictions on Jews were relaxed, and synagogues of both Orthodox and Reform Judaism were built in Vienna. A number of Jewish banking families achieved prominent social position and recognition; Among them, Solomon Rothschild stood out, who was friendly with Metternich and in 1823 received the title of baron.

Unrest among national minorities

The Czech intelligentsia developed their native language, literary and historical works were composed in which the medieval Czech Republic was glorified. Patriotic Czech journalists denounced the Austrian administration and restrictions on civil liberties. In Galicia, Polish patriots declared the independence of their people in 1846. However, the most active in the struggle for national freedom were the Hungarians, or rather the middle strata of the Hungarian nobles. Hungarian writers and scientists revived the golden pages of the past and aroused hopes for a glorious future. The recognized apostle of the cultural and national revival of Hungary was Count István Széchenyi, who belonged to one of the proudest aristocratic families in the kingdom. A well-travelled cosmopolitan, he remained loyal to the Habsburgs but advocated reforms in government. The leadership of the national movement was taken over by lawyer Lajos Kossuth. In 1847, his supporters achieved a majority in the Hungarian Diet.

After the death of Franz I in 1835, the leadership of the Austrian government was entrusted to a regency council with the participation of Metternich, since the new emperor, Ferdinand I (1793–1875), proved incapable of governing. Censorship was relaxed and universities received greater freedom.

The revolution in Paris in 1848 echoed with protests in Vienna, the Czech Republic, Hungary and the Italian provinces. The Habsburg Empire was in danger of collapse. Groups of students and artisans and the liberal bourgeoisie demanded that Prince Metternich resign from government posts and a constitution be adopted in the country. The Habsburg court agreed. 75-year-old Metternich, who had been the “rock of order” for two generations, fled to England.

The Austrian Constituent Assembly abolished serfdom. This became the main achievement of the revolutionary storm. In October 1848, Vienna experienced a second wave of mass unrest. Street battles waged by reform supporters caused serious destruction in cities. The imperial army crushed the uprising. Prince Felix Schwarzenberg, having assumed dictatorial powers, replaced the weak-minded Emperor Ferdinand I with his 18-year-old nephew, Franz Joseph. A draft constitution was developed that provided for the creation of a federal legislature with the participation of various national groups and the equality of nations. But this document never came into force. Later, a unified imperial constitution was proclaimed, but it was not put into effect.

National requirements

In the Czech Republic, Czech-speaking and German-speaking oppositionists initially united to extract concessions from the House of Habsburg. However, their paths diverged when Czech patriots demanded self-government for the Czech Republic and opposed unification into a single German state. Supporters of moderate views spoke out for the preservation of the Austrian Empire, transformed into a federation based on the equality of peoples.

In June 1848, a congress of Slavic leaders of Austria and representatives of foreign Slavs met in Prague to discuss political problems. There was a clash between Czech patriots and the Germans. As a result, the city was occupied by the Austrian army, which marked the beginning of the restoration of Habsburg power.

The uprising in Hungary followed a more complicated plot. At Kossuth's request, the Viennese court gave Hungary almost complete control over its internal affairs while maintaining dynastic and military ties with Austria. Serfs were freed and broad civil liberties were promised. But Hungarian politicians persistently denied basic human rights to the small peoples of the kingdom, who collectively outnumbered the Hungarians. For Croats and Romanians, Hungarian chauvinism was even worse than Habsburg authoritarianism. These peoples, incited by Vienna, entered into a struggle with the Hungarians, which was soon joined by Austrian troops.

On April 14, 1849, Kossuth declared the independence of Hungary. Since the Austrian government did not have sufficient military forces to suppress the uprising, it turned to Russian Tsar Nicholas I for help. He responded immediately, and Russian troops dealt a fatal blow to the Hungarian uprising. The remnants of Hungarian autonomy were completely liquidated, Kossuth himself fled.

When the Habsburg dynasty seemed on the verge of collapse, Lombardy and Venice rebelled and the Venetian Republic was revived. However, Austrian troops suppressed the rebellion and restored Austrian dominance over the Italian provinces and the entire Apennine Peninsula.

The Viennese court also sought to prevent the unification of the German states in order to prevent Prussia from gaining a dominant position in German-speaking Europe. Austria emerged from the revolutionary upheavals weakened, but retained its integrity.

Reaction and reform

Prince Felix Schwarzenberg effectively ruled Austria until his death in 1852, and then Franz Joseph took over full power. The Germanization of all peoples of the empire who did not speak German was carried out. The Czech patriotic movement was suppressed, the Hungarians were pacified. In 1850, Hungary was united with Austria into a single customs union. According to the concordat of 1855, the Roman Catholic Church received the right to its own educational system and press.

On the Apennine Peninsula, the movement for national unification was led by a skilled politician of the Sardinian Kingdom (Piedmont), Count Camillo Cavour. His plans included the liberation of Lombardy and Venice. In accordance with a secret agreement with the French Emperor Napoleon III, Cavour provoked a war with Austria in 1859. The combined Franco-Sardinian forces defeated Franz Joseph's forces and Austria was forced to abandon Lombardy. In 1860, the pro-Austrian dynasties in the small states of Italy were overthrown, and a united Italian kingdom was formed under the leadership of Piedmont. In 1884, Austria, in alliance with Prussia, went to war against Denmark for control of the small territories of Schleswig and Holstein.

In 1866, a dispute over the division of Danish spoils led to war between Austria and Prussia. Italy took the side of Prussia, and the Austrian Empire was defeated. However, the terms of the peace treaty dictated by Bismarck turned out to be quite tolerable. This was the subtle calculation of the Prussian chancellor. The House of Habsburg had to renounce its historical role in German affairs without ceding any territory to Prussia (except the lands taken from Denmark). On the other hand, although Austrian troops defeated the Italians on land and sea, Venice was transferred to Italy, and a number of Italian regions remained under Habsburg control.

Birth of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy

The loss of territory and prestige necessitated a new form of relations between Austria and Hungary. Various draft constitutions, which provided for the creation of a unified parliament, were prepared without the participation of the Hungarians. Finally, in 1867, the famous “compromise” was worked out ( Ausgleich). The Austrian Empire, proclaimed in 1804, was transformed into a dualist Austria-Hungary, with Hungarians ruling Hungary and Austrians ruling the rest of the new state. In the sphere of international relations, both states had to act as a single entity, maintaining autonomy in internal affairs.

Constitutional reforms

One of the areas of government reorganization in the 1860s in the Austrian half of the dual monarchy was the further development of a constitution. The constitution guaranteed civil liberties and equality for all linguistic groups. A bicameral state parliament, the Reichsrat, was established. Deputies of the lower house were elected through indirect elections. The Constitution provided for broad powers for the legislature, which was to meet once a year. The Cabinet of Ministers was responsible to the lower house. Both chambers had equal legislative power. One of the paragraphs of the constitution (the famous Article XIV) gave the monarch the power to issue decrees between sessions of parliament that had the force of law.

The legislative assemblies of the 17 Austrian states (Landtags) received broader powers, but the crown appointed governors who could override the decisions of the Landtags. Initially, it was the Landtags that elected deputies to the lower house of the Reichsrat, but in 1873 direct elections by districts and curiae (class or qualification categories of voters) were introduced.

Political parties

Austrian-German deputies were divided into rival political factions. The largest group were supporters of the monarchy. In the 1880s, two new parties were organized - the Christian Social and the Social Democratic. The first of them acted mainly on behalf of the Austrian-German peasants and petty bourgeoisie, and its leaders were loyal to the Habsburg dynasty and the Roman Catholic Church.

Social Democrats declared their adherence to the teachings of Karl Marx, but advocated carrying out political and social reforms through constitutional methods. The party was headed by party leader Viktor Adler and theorist in the field of national problems Otto Bauer. Controversies over the national question weakened the movement, but it nevertheless campaigned successfully for universal suffrage for all adult men.

There was also a small but vocal faction of Great Germans who demanded the unification of areas with a German-speaking population with the German Empire. This trend in Austrian politics had a serious impact on the mindset of Adolf Hitler, who spent several years in Vienna.

National minorities

The Czechs demanded that the Czech Republic be given the same status in the monarchy that Hungary received, but they were never able to achieve this. The development of educational opportunities and economic prosperity gave greater confidence to the Czech middle class. In general, Czech patriots such as Tomas Masaryk sought internal self-government for the Czech Republic, without demanding the destruction of the empire and the creation of an independent Czech state. In the Sejm of the Czech Republic there was a struggle between Czech deputies and representatives of Austrian-German elements. Czech-German hostility from time to time paralyzed the work of the parliament in Vienna. The Czechs achieved concessions in the field of language, access to public service and in education, and yet not a single constitutional formula was adopted that could satisfy the claims of the Czechs and at the same time be acceptable to the Austro-Germans.

The Poles in Galicia received a significant degree of autonomy, which completely satisfied them. This province became the object of envy and admiration of Polish patriots living in the Russian and Prussian-German parts of Poland. Among the large Ukrainian minority in Galicia, unrest continued due to discrimination and repression by the Poles, and a small stratum of Ukrainian intelligentsia fought for the rights of their compatriots. One of the Ukrainian factions spoke out for political unification with the Ukrainians of the Russian Empire.

Of all the Austrian peoples, the South Slavs (Slovenes, Croats, Serbs) caused the greatest concern at the Viennese court. The number of representatives of this national group increased in 1908, when Austria-Hungary annexed the former Turkish province of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The South Slavs in Austria varied greatly in their views. Some of them sought to unite with the Kingdom of Serbia, others were satisfied with the existing situation, and others preferred the creation of a South Slavic state within the framework of the Habsburg Monarchy.

This last alternative meant the formation of a state covering the South Slavic areas of both Hungary and Austria, with the same status as the Austrian Empire or the Kingdom of Hungary. This proposal met with some support in Austria, but was negatively received by almost all Hungarian politicians. Broader projects were also proposed to restructure the monarchy into a federal union of peoples, but the concept of the Habsburg “United States” was never put into practice.

There was also no unity among Austria's Italian minority, who lived in south Tyrol, Trieste and the surrounding area. Some Italian-speaking residents tacitly accepted Vienna's rule, while militant separatists called for unification with Italy.

Partly to calm national feelings, partly in response to strong pressure from the Social Democrats, universal adult male suffrage was introduced in 1907 for elections to the Austrian parliament (Reichsrat). However, political unrest in the multinational empire intensified. In the spring of 1914, a break was declared in the work of the Reichsrat, and parliament did not meet for three years.

World War I

The news of the start of the war was greeted with enthusiasm. The danger of an offensive by the Russian army rallied the Austrians; even the Social Democrats supported the war. Official and unofficial propaganda inspired the will to win and largely suppressed interethnic contradictions. The unity of the state was ensured by a harsh military dictatorship; the dissatisfied were forced to submit. Only in the Czech Republic the war did not cause much enthusiasm. All the resources of the monarchy were mobilized to achieve victory, but the leadership acted extremely ineffectively.

Military failures at the beginning of the war undermined the morale of the army and the population. Streams of refugees rushed from the war zones to Vienna and other cities. Many public buildings were converted into hospitals. Italy's entry into the war against the monarchy in May 1915 increased war fervor, especially among the Slovenes. When Romania's territorial claims to Austria-Hungary were rejected, Bucharest went over to the Entente side.

It was at that moment when the Romanian armies were retreating that the eighty-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph died. The new ruler, young Charles I, a man of limited ability, sidelined the men on whom his predecessor had relied. In 1917, Karl convened the Reichsrat. Representatives of national minorities demanded reform of the empire. Some sought autonomy for their peoples, others insisted on complete separation. Patriotic sentiments forced Czechs to desert the army, and the Czech rebel Karel Kramar was sentenced to death on charges of treason, but then pardoned. In July 1917, the emperor declared an amnesty for political prisoners. This gesture of reconciliation reduced his authority among the militant Austro-Germans: the monarch was accused of being too soft.

Even before Charles ascended the throne, Austrian Social Democrats were divided into supporters and opponents of the war. Pacifist leader Friedrich Adler, son of Victor Adler, assassinated the Austrian Prime Minister, Count Karl Stürgk, in October 1916. At the trial, Adler sharply criticized the government. Sentenced to a long prison term, he was released after the revolution in November 1918.

End of the Habsburg dynasty

A low grain harvest, a decrease in food supplies to Austria from Hungary and a blockade by the Entente countries doomed ordinary Austrian city dwellers to hardships and hardships. In January 1918, munitions factory workers went on strike and returned to work only after the government promised to improve their living and working conditions. In February, a riot broke out at the naval base in Kotor, with participants raising a red flag. The authorities brutally suppressed the riots and executed the instigators.

Separatist sentiments grew among the peoples of the empire. At the beginning of the war, patriotic committees of Czechoslovaks (led by Tomas Masaryk), Poles and South Slavs were created abroad. These committees campaigned in the countries of the Entente and America for the national independence of their peoples, seeking support from official and private circles. In 1919, the Entente states and the United States recognized these emigrant groups as a de facto government. In October 1918, national councils within Austria, one after another, declared the independence of lands and territories. Emperor Charles's promise to reform the Austrian constitution on the basis of federalism accelerated the process of disintegration. In Vienna, Austro-German politicians created a provisional government for German Austria, and the Social Democrats agitated for a republic. Charles I abdicated on November 11, 1918. The next day the Republic of Austria was proclaimed

Emperors who made elective office hereditary.

The Habsburgs were a dynasty that ruled the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (until 1806), Spain (1516-1700), the Austrian Empire (formally from 1804), and Austria-Hungary (1867-1918).

The Habsburgs were one of the richest and most influential families in Europe. A distinctive feature of the Habsburgs' appearance was their prominent, slightly drooping lower lip.

Charles II of Habsburg

The family castle of an ancient family, built at the beginning of the 11th century, was called Habsburg (from Habichtsburg - Hawk's Nest). The dynasty received its name from him.

Castle Hawk's Nest, Switzerland

The Habsburg family castle - Schönbrunn - is located near Vienna. It is a modernized copy of Louis XIV's Versailles and is where much of the Habsburg family and political life took place.

Habsburg Summer Castle - Schönbrunn, Austria

And the main residence of the Habsburgs in Vienna was the Hofburg (Burg) palace complex.

Habsburg Winter Castle - Hofburg, Austria

In 1247, Count Rudolf of Habsburg was elected king of Germany, marking the beginning of a royal dynasty. Rudolf I annexed the lands of Bohemia and Austria to his possessions, which became the center of the dominion. The first emperor from the ruling Habsburg dynasty was Rudolf I (1218-1291), German king since 1273. During his reign in 1273-1291, he took Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola from the Czech Republic, which became the main core of the Habsburg possessions.

Rudolf I of Habsburg (1273-1291)

Rudolf I was succeeded by his eldest son Albrecht I, who was elected king in 1298.

Albrecht I of Habsburg

Then, for almost a hundred years, representatives of other families occupied the German throne, until Albrecht II was elected king in 1438. Since then, representatives of the Habsburg dynasty have been constantly (with the exception of a single break in 1742-1745) elected kings of Germany and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. The only attempt in 1742 to elect another candidate, the Bavarian Wittelsbach, led to civil war.

Albrecht II of Habsburg

The Habsburgs received the imperial throne at a time when only a very strong dynasty could hold onto it. Through the efforts of the Habsburgs - Frederick III, his son Maximilian I and great-grandson Charles V - the highest prestige of the imperial title was restored, and the idea of ​​empire itself received new content.

Frederick III of Habsburg

Maximilian I (emperor from 1493 to 1519) annexed the Netherlands to the Austrian possessions. In 1477, by marrying Mary of Burgundy, he added to the Habsburg domains Franche-Comté, a historical province in eastern France. He married his son Charles to the daughter of the Spanish king, and thanks to the successful marriage of his grandson, he received the rights to the Czech throne.

Emperor Maximilian I. Portrait by Albrecht Durer (1519)

Bernhard Striegel. Portrait of Emperor Maximilian I and his family

Bernaert van Orley. Young Charles V, son of Maximilian I. Louvre

Maximilian I. Portrait by Rubens, 1618

After the death of Maximilian I, three powerful kings claimed the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire - Charles V of Spain himself, Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England. But Henry VIII quickly abandoned the crown, and Charles and Francis continued this struggle with each other almost all their lives.

In the struggle for power, Charles used the silver of his colonies in Mexico and Peru and money borrowed from the richest bankers of that time to bribe the electors, giving them Spanish mines in return. And the electors elected the heir of the Habsburgs to the imperial throne. Everyone hoped that he would be able to withstand the onslaught of the Turks and protect Europe from their invasion with the help of the fleet. The new emperor was forced to accept conditions according to which only Germans could hold public positions in the empire, the German language was to be used on an equal basis with Latin, and all meetings of government officials were to be held only with the participation of the electors.

Charles V of Habsburg

Titian, Portrait of Charles V with his dog, 1532-33. Oil on canvas, Prado Museum, Madrid

Titian, Portrait of Charles V in an Armchair, 1548

Titian, Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Mühlberg

So Charles V became the ruler of a huge empire, which included Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Southern Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Spain and the Spanish colonies in America - Mexico and Peru. The “world power” under his rule was so great that “the sun never set” on it.

Even his military victories did not bring the desired success to Charles V. He declared the goal of his policy to be the creation of a “worldwide Christian monarchy.” But internal strife between Catholics and Protestants destroyed the empire, the greatness and unity of which he dreamed of. During his reign, the Peasants' War of 1525 broke out in Germany, the Reformation took place, and the Comuneros uprising took place in Spain in 1520-1522.

The collapse of the political program forced the emperor to eventually sign the Religious Peace of Augsburg, and now each elector within his principality could adhere to the faith that he liked best - Catholic or Protestant, that is, the principle “whose power, whose faith” was proclaimed. In 1556, he sent a message to the electors renouncing the imperial crown, which he ceded to his brother Ferdinand I (1556-64), who had been elected king of Rome back in 1531. In the same year, Charles V abdicated the Spanish throne in favor of his son Philip II and retired to a monastery, where he died two years later.

Emperor Ferdinand I of Habsburg in a portrait by Boxberger

Philip II of Habsburg in ceremonial armor

Austrian branch of the Habsburgs

Castile in 1520-1522 against absolutism. At the Battle of Villalar (1521), the rebels were defeated and ceased resistance in 1522. Government repression continued until 1526. Ferdinand I managed to secure for the Habsburgs the right of ownership of the lands of the crown of St. Wenceslas and St. Stephen, which significantly increased the possessions and prestige of the Habsburgs. He was tolerant of both Catholics and Protestants, as a result of which the great empire actually disintegrated into separate states.

Already during his lifetime, Ferdinand I ensured continuity by holding the election of the Roman king in 1562, which was won by his son Maximilian II. He was an educated man with gallant manners and deep knowledge of modern culture and art.

Maximilian II of Habsburg

Giuseppe Arcimboldo. Portrait of Maximilian II with his family, c. 1563

Maximilian II evokes very contradictory assessments by historians: he is both a “mysterious emperor,” and a “tolerant emperor,” and “a representative of humanistic Christianity of the Erasmus tradition,” but recently he is most often called the “emperor of the religious world.” Maximilian II of Habsburg continued the policies of his father, who sought to find compromises with opposition-minded subjects of the empire. This position provided the emperor with extraordinary popularity in the empire, which contributed to the unhindered election of his son, Rudolf II, as the Roman king and then emperor.

Rudolf II of Habsburg

Rudolf II of Habsburg

Rudolf II was brought up at the Spanish court, had a deep mind, strong will and intuition, was far-sighted and prudent, but for all that he was timid and prone to depression. In 1578 and 1581 he suffered serious illnesses, after which he stopped appearing at hunts, tournaments and festivals. Over time, suspicion developed in him, and he began to fear witchcraft and poisoning, sometimes he thought about suicide, and in recent years he sought oblivion in drunkenness.

Historians believe that the cause of his mental illness was his bachelor life, but this is not entirely true: the emperor had a family, but not one consecrated by marriage. He had a long relationship with the daughter of the antiquarian Jacopo de la Strada, Maria, and they had six children.

The emperor's favorite son, Don Julius Caesar of Austria, was mentally ill, committed a brutal murder and died in custody.

Rudolf II of Habsburg was an extremely versatile person: he loved Latin poetry, history, devoted a lot of time to mathematics, physics, astronomy, and was interested in occult sciences (there is a legend that Rudolf had contacts with Rabbi Lev, who allegedly created the “Golem”, an artificial man) . During his reign, mineralogy, metallurgy, zoology, botany and geography received significant development.

Rudolf II was the largest collector in Europe. His passion was the works of Durer, Pieter Bruegel the Elder. He was also known as a watch collector. His encouragement of jewelry culminated in the creation of the magnificent Imperial Crown, the symbol of the Austrian Empire.

Personal crown of Rudolf II, later crown of the Austrian Empire

He proved himself to be a talented commander (in the war with the Turks), but was unable to take advantage of the fruits of this victory; the war became protracted. This sparked a rebellion in 1604, and in 1608 the emperor abdicated in favor of his brother Matthias. It must be said that Rudolf II resisted this turn of affairs for a long time and extended the transfer of powers to the heir for several years. This situation tired both the heir and the population. Therefore, everyone breathed a sigh of relief when Rudolf II died of dropsy on January 20, 1612.

Matthias Habsburg

Matthias received only the appearance of power and influence. The finances in the state were completely upset, the foreign policy situation was steadily leading to a big war, domestic politics threatened another uprising, and the victory of the irreconcilable Catholic party, at the origins of which Matthias stood, actually led to his overthrow.

This sad inheritance went to Ferdinand of Central Austria, who was elected Roman Emperor in 1619. He was a friendly and generous gentleman to his subjects and a very happy husband (in both of his marriages).

Ferdinand II of Habsburg

Ferdinand II loved music and adored hunting, but work came first for him. He was deeply religious. During his reign, he successfully overcame a number of difficult crises, he managed to unite the politically and religiously divided possessions of the Habsburgs and began a similar unification in the empire, which was to be completed by his son, Emperor Ferdinand III.

Ferdinand III of Habsburg

The most important political event of the reign of Ferdinand III is the Peace of Westphalia, with the conclusion of which the Thirty Years' War ended, which began as an uprising against Matthias, continued under Ferdinand II and was stopped by Ferdinand III. By the time peace was signed, 4/5 of all war resources were in the hands of the emperor’s opponents, and the last parts of the imperial army capable of maneuvering were defeated. In this situation, Ferdinand III proved himself to be a strong politician, capable of making decisions independently and consistently implementing them. Despite all the defeats, the emperor perceived the Peace of Westphalia as a success that prevented even more serious consequences. But the treaty, signed under pressure from the electors, which brought peace to the empire, simultaneously undermined the authority of the emperor.

The prestige of the emperor's power had to be restored by Leopold I, who was elected in 1658 and ruled for 47 years after that. He managed to successfully play the role of the emperor as a defender of law and law, restoring the authority of the emperor step by step. He worked long and hard, traveling outside the empire only when necessary, and made sure that strong personalities did not occupy a dominant position for a long time.

Leopold I of Habsburg

The alliance with the Netherlands concluded in 1673 allowed Leopold I to strengthen the foundations for Austria's future position as a great European power and achieve its recognition among the electors - subjects of the empire. Austria again became the center around which the empire was defined.

Under Leopold, Germany experienced a revival of Austrian and Habsburg hegemony in the empire, the birth of the "Viennese Imperial Baroque". The emperor himself was known as a composer.

Leopold I of Hasburg was succeeded by Emperor Joseph I of Habsburg. The beginning of his reign was brilliant, and a great future was predicted for the emperor, but his undertakings were not completed. Soon after his election, it became clear that he preferred hunting and amorous adventures to serious work. His affairs with court ladies and chambermaids caused a lot of trouble for his respectable parents. Even the attempt to marry Joseph was unsuccessful, because the wife could not find the strength to tie her irrepressible hubby.

Joseph I of Habsburg

Joseph died of smallpox in 1711, remaining in history as a symbol of hope that was not destined to come true.

Charles VI became the Roman emperor, who had previously tried his hand as King Charles III of Spain, but was not recognized by the Spaniards and was not supported by other rulers. He managed to maintain peace in the empire without losing the authority of the emperor.

Charles VI of Habsburg, last of the Habsburgs in the male line

However, he was unable to ensure the continuity of the dynasty, since there was no son among his children (he died in infancy). Therefore, Charles took care to regulate the order of inheritance. A document known as the Pragmatic Sanction was adopted, according to which, after the complete extinction of the ruling branch, the right of succession was first given to the daughters of his brother, and then to his sisters. This document contributed greatly to the rise of his daughter Maria Theresa, who ruled the empire first with her husband, Franz I, and then with her son, Joseph II.

Maria Theresa at age 11

But in history, not everything was so smooth: with the death of Charles VI, the male line of the Habsburgs was interrupted, and Charles VII from the Wittelsbach dynasty was elected emperor, which forced the Habsburgs to remember that the empire is an elective monarchy and its governance is not associated with a single dynasty.

Portrait of Maria Theresa

Maria Theresa made attempts to return the crown to her family, which she succeeded after the death of Charles VII - her husband, Franz I, became emperor. However, in fairness, it should be noted that Franz was not an independent politician, because all affairs in the empire were taken into his hands tireless wife. Maria Theresa and Franz were happily married (despite Franz's numerous infidelities, which his wife preferred not to notice), and God blessed them with numerous offspring: 16 children. Surprisingly, but true: the empress even gave birth as if casually: she worked with documents until the doctors sent her to the maternity room, and immediately after giving birth she continued to sign documents and only after that could she afford to rest. She entrusted the care of raising her children to trusted persons, strictly supervising them. Her interest in the destinies of her children truly manifested itself only when the time came to think about the arrangement of their marriages. And here Maria Theresa showed truly remarkable abilities. She arranged the weddings of her daughters: Maria Caroline married the King of Naples, Maria Amelia married the Infante of Parma, and Marie Antoinette, married to the Dauphin of France Louis (XVI), became the last queen of France.

Maria Theresa, who pushed her husband into the shadow of big politics, did the same with her son, which is why their relationship was always tense. As a result of these skirmishes, Joseph chose to travel.

Francis I Stephen, Francis I of Lorraine

During his trips he visited Switzerland, France, and Russia. Traveling not only expanded the circle of his personal acquaintances, but also increased his popularity among his subjects.

After the death of Maria Theresa in 1780, Joseph was finally able to carry out the reforms that he had thought about and prepared during his mother’s time. This program was born, carried out and died with him. Joseph was alien to dynastic thinking; he sought to expand the territory and pursue the Austrian great-power policy. This policy turned almost the entire empire against him. Nevertheless, Joseph still managed to achieve some results: in 10 years he changed the face of the empire so much that only his descendants were able to truly appreciate his work.

Joseph II, eldest son of Maria Theresa

It was clear to the new monarch, Leopold II, that the empire would only be saved by concessions and a slow return to the past, but while his goals were clear, he had no clarity in actually achieving them, and, as it turned out later, he also did not have time, because the emperor died 2 years after election.

Leopold II, third son of Franz I and Maria Theresa

Francis II reigned for over 40 years, under him the Austrian Empire was formed, under him the final collapse of the Roman Empire was recorded, under him Chancellor Metternich ruled, after whom an entire era was named. But the emperor himself, in historical light, appears as a shadow bending over state papers, a vague and amorphous shadow, incapable of independent body movements.

Franz II with the scepter and crown of the new Austrian Empire. Portrait by Friedrich von Amerling. 1832. Museum of Art History. Vein

At the beginning of his reign, Franz II was a very active politician: he carried out management reforms, mercilessly changed officials, experimented in politics, and his experiments simply took the breath away of many. It was later that he would become a conservative, suspicious and unsure of himself, unable to make global decisions...

Francis II assumed the title of Hereditary Emperor of Austria in 1804, which was associated with the proclamation of Napoleon as Hereditary Emperor of the French. And by 1806, circumstances were such that the Roman Empire had become a ghost. If in 1803 there were still some remnants of imperial consciousness, now they were not even remembered. Having soberly assessed the situation, Francis II decided to relinquish the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and from that moment devoted himself entirely to strengthening Austria.

In his memoirs, Metternich wrote about this turn of history: “Franz, deprived of the title and the rights that he had before 1806, but incomparably more powerful than then, was now the true emperor of Germany.”

Ferdinand I of Austria "The Good" modestly ranks between his predecessor and his successor Franz Joseph I.

Ferdinand I of Austria "The Good"

Ferdinand I was very popular among the people, as evidenced by numerous anecdotes. He was a supporter of innovations in many areas: from the construction of the railroad to the first long-distance telegraph line. By decision of the emperor, the Military Geographical Institute was created and the Austrian Academy of Sciences was founded.

The emperor was sick with epilepsy, and the disease left its mark on the attitude towards him. He was called “blessed”, “fool”, “stupid”, etc. Despite all these unflattering epithets, Ferdinand I showed various abilities: he knew five languages, played the piano, and was fond of botany. In the matter of government, he also achieved certain successes. Thus, during the revolution of 1848, it was he who realized that Metternich’s system, which had worked successfully for many years, had outlived its usefulness and required replacement. And Ferdinand Joseph had the firmness to refuse the services of the chancellor.

During the difficult days of 1848, the Emperor tried to resist circumstances and pressure from others, but he was eventually forced to abdicate, followed by Archduke Franz Karl. Franz Joseph, the son of Franz Karl, who ruled Austria (and then Austria-Hungary) for no less than 68 years, became emperor. The first years the emperor ruled under the influence, if not under the leadership, of his mother, Empress Sophia.

Franz Joseph in 1853. Portrait by Miklós Barabás

Franz Joseph I of Austria

For Franz Joseph I of Austria, the most important things in the world were: dynasty, army and religion. At first, the young emperor zealously took up the matter. Already in 1851, after the defeat of the revolution, the absolutist regime in Austria was restored.

In 1867, Franz Joseph transformed the Austrian Empire into the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, in other words, he made a constitutional compromise that retained for the emperor all the advantages of an absolute monarch, but at the same time left all the problems of the state system unresolved.

The policy of coexistence and cooperation between the peoples of Central Europe is the Habsburg tradition. It was a conglomerate of peoples, essentially equal, because everyone, be it a Hungarian or a Bohemian, a Czech or a Bosnian, could occupy any government post. They ruled in the name of the law and did not take into account the national origin of their subjects. For nationalists, Austria was a “prison of nations,” but, oddly enough, the people in this “prison” grew rich and prospered. Thus, the House of Habsburg really assessed the benefits of having a large Jewish community on the territory of Austria and invariably defended the Jews from the attacks of Christian communities - so much so that anti-Semites even nicknamed Franz Joseph the “Jewish Emperor.”

Franz Joseph loved his charming wife, but on occasion he could not resist the temptation to admire the beauty of other women, who usually reciprocated his feelings. He also could not resist gambling, often visiting the Monte Carlo casino. Like all Habsburgs, the emperor under no circumstances misses the hunt, which has a pacifying effect on him.

The Habsburg monarchy was swept away by the whirlwind of revolution in October 1918. The last representative of this dynasty, Charles I of Austria, was overthrown after being in power for only about two years, and all the Habsburgs were expelled from the country.

Charles I of Austria

The last representative of the Habsburg dynasty in Austria - Charles I of Austria and his wife

There was an ancient legend in the Habsburg family: the proud family would begin with Rudolf and end with Rudolf. The prediction almost came true, for the dynasty fell after the death of Crown Prince Rudolf, the only son of Franz Joseph I of Austria. And if the dynasty remained on the throne after his death for another 27 years, then for a prediction made many centuries ago, this is a minor error.

The House of Habsburg was considered the most powerful dynasty in medieval and Renaissance Europe. At the beginning of the 12th century, the family dominated in Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Italy, and Spain. By the 16th century, representatives of the dynasty had already expanded their influence into the Philippines and America. However, their successful reign came to a dramatic end due to inbreeding problems.

I propose to recall in more detail the nuances and course of history...

King Charles V, who marked the beginning of the degeneration of the Habsburg dynasty. | Photo: allday.com.

Inbreeding of organisms is called either inbreeding (usually used for plants) or inbreeding (for animals). These terms also refer to incest between siblings or parents and children, which is taboo in many cultures, but not all. It is known, for example, that a similar custom was practiced by the Egyptian pharaohs.

Scientists cannot yet explain the biological basis of inbreeding, or inbreeding. Many representatives of flora and fauna are crossed and fertilized by close relatives, acquiring in the next generation the most optimal genes for further development. The situation is different with the human race. Hemophilia (incoagulability of blood), still called the "king's disease", is caused by inbreeding. It was precisely this that the heir of the Russian Emperor Nicholas II Romanov, Tsarevich Alexei, suffered from. Although in this case it cannot be considered that it was inbreeding that led to the genetic defect causing hemophilia, it is only correct to assert that inbreeding caused this defect to circulate among royalty for quite a long time, since there was simply nowhere to get a “healthy gene” from outside (then every a monarch who married a person not belonging to the royal family was deprived of the right to inherit the throne).

A team of scientists led by Spanish geneticist Gonzalo Alvarez, a professor at the University of Santiago de Compostello, found out what factors contributed to the inevitable collapse of the Spanish branch of the Habsburg dynasty. In each generation, the Madrid and Viennese Habsburgs cemented their union through family marriages. A genetic catastrophe occurred when, as a result of the marriage of Philip IV with Maria Anna of Austria, daughter of Ferdinand III and sister of Leopold I (that is, from his uncle and niece), the only son and heir, Charles II, was born.

The Habsburgs, according to most historians, came from Alsace, the border region between the Germanic and Roman worlds. The question of the origin of this dynasty is quite confusing: partly due to the lack of documents, partly deliberately, to solve the political problems of its time. According to the earliest version, which arose at the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th century, the Habsburgs were associated with the patrician family of Colonna, which traced its origins to the Roman emperors of the Julius dynasty, from Gaius Julius Caesar himself.

A simple fact contributed to the birth of this myth. The election of Rudolf Habsburg as the German king in 1273, who was not one of the noblest nobles, forced him to “give birth” to a noble pedigree.

Later, another theory arose, according to which the ancestors of the Habsburgs were the kings of the Franks from the Merovingian dynasty (V-VIII centuries). Through them, the roots of the family went to the legendary hero of ancient myths Aeneas and the Trojans. This concept, due to the legitimization of its claims as the heirs of the Carolingians and Merovingians, most attracted the attention of Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg, who at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, as the heir of the Burgundian dukes, fought with the French kings from the Valois dynasty.

To complete the picture, we add that there was also a third version, which arose at the beginning of the 18th century thanks to the genealogical research of the Hanoverian librarian Johann Georg Eckard and the learned monk Markard Herrgott. They called the ancestors of the Habsburg dynasty the Dukes of Alemannic, who were originally the leaders of a group of Germanic tribes, the region of which later became part of the empire of Charlemagne. The Alemannic dukes were considered the common ancestors of the Habsburgs and the Dukes of Lorraine. After the daughter and heir of Emperor Charles VI, Maria Theresa, married Franz Stephen of Lorraine in 1736, the use of this version sanctified the new House of Habsburg-Lorraine with historical tradition and divine destiny.

The real first Habsburg (the geographical name itself, which gave the name to the dynasty, will appear later) was Guntram the Rich. In 952, the German Emperor Otto I deprived him of his property for treason. At the end of the 10th century, his descendants appeared in Switzerland. Guntram's grandson Count Rathbod founded the castle of Habichtsburg around 1023 (translated from German Habichtsburg - Hawk Castle), the name of which later became Habsburg - Habsburg.

Family tree of the Habsburg dynasty. | Photo: ru.wikipedia.org.

Distinctive features of the representatives of the Habsburg dynasty were a protruding chin and lips, as well as a high mortality rate among newborn children. By the time the last representative of the family to occupy the Spanish throne, Charles II, was born, the inbreeding coefficient was 25%, i.e. almost 80% of marriages were between close relatives.

Charles II became the most visible victim of prolonged incest. From birth, the king had a whole “bouquet” of various diseases, including epilepsy. If the average fifth-generation person can boast of 32 different ancestors, then Charles II had only 10, and 8 of them originated from Queen Juana I the Mad.

Charles II - King of Spain (1661-1700). | Photo: ru.wikipedia.org

The papal nuncio at the Madrid court left a portrait of the already adult king: “He is rather short than tall; fragile, of good build; his face is generally ugly; he has a long neck, a wide face and a chin with a typically Habsburg lower lip... He looks melancholic and slightly surprised... He cannot stand upright when walking unless he is holding on to a wall, a table or someone. He is as weak in body as in mind. From time to time he shows signs of intelligence, memory and a certain liveliness, but... "He is usually apathetic and lethargic and seems stupid. You can do whatever you want with him, because he has no will of his own."

Karl often fainted, was afraid of the slightest draft, blood was found in his urine in the morning, he was haunted by hallucinations and tormented by convulsions. He began to speak with difficulty at the age of four, and walked at the age of eight. Due to the specific structure of his lips, his mouth was always drooling and he could barely eat. Mentally and physically retarded Charles II, who had a disproportionately sized skull, among other things, was also poorly brought up.

Charles II of Spain is the last representative of the House of Habsburg. | Photo: allday.com.

While his mother, Queen Regent Marianne, ruled the state, Charles II played in the palace with dwarfs. The king was not taught anything, but only took care of his health. This was manifested in the rituals of exorcism (driving out demons). Because of this, Charles II received the nickname El Hachizado, or "The Enchanted One".

The king died at the age of 38, which was even too long for people with so many diseases. He left no heirs because he was not capable of conceiving. Thus, the once most influential ruling dynasty in Europe literally degenerated.

The childlessness of Charles II led to the fact that both the Austrian Habsburgs and the French Bourbons, who were also related to the unfortunate king, became contenders for the Spanish crown and its possessions in America and Asia. As a result, the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) broke out in Europe after his death.

The results of the study by Professor Alvarez and his colleagues were published in the journal PLoS One. A team of researchers studied three thousand relatives from 16 generations of the Habsburg dynasty, whose family tree is well documented, to calculate the "coefficient of inbreeding." It turned out to be greatest among Charles II and his grandfather Philip III. If the son of Philip II and the father of Philip IV was not marked with such a clear mark of degeneration, although he was married to his niece (their parents, moreover, were also very close relatives), then the villainous fate took its revenge on Carlos.

The founder of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty, Philip I, had an “inbreeding coefficient” of 0.025. This means that 2.5 percent of his genes appeared due to closely related relationships. For Charles II, this coefficient was 0.254-0.255 percent. Every fourth gene is identical to what he received from his father and mother, which in theory corresponds to being born from the intercourse of a brother and sister or from parents with their own children. For other representatives of the Habsburg dynasty, this coefficient did not exceed 0.2 percent. This figure is probably due to the high infant mortality rate - half of the Habsburgs did not live to see their first year of life. Among their Spanish contemporaries - only a fifth.

However, geneticists themselves are not inclined to exaggerate their discovery, which they call “highly speculative” due to the fact that full gene studies have not been carried out, and the coefficient was calculated only on the basis of genealogy. On the other hand, it is not yet clear at all whether inbreeding has biologically harmful consequences leading to the appearance of degenerate offspring, or whether incestuous relationships are just a social taboo.

Preface

The Thirty Years' War and the Great Peace that ended it (1648) became the most important stage in the rise of the Gab di-nasty -s-burgs and transformation of Av-s-t-ria into a great country. As a result of this war and the defeat of the Czech troops in the battle of the White Mountain (1620), the lands of the Czech regions (Czech Republic, Mora-via, Si-le-zia) were windows-cha-tel-but-joined to “us-ice-with-t-ven” -nom vla-de-ni-yam" Gab-s-bur-gov, i.e. to own-s-t-ven-but Av-s-t-rii. Some kind of di-nas-tia has won the window-cha-tel-nu-du-du over its pro-tes-tan-t-s-ki-mi- given by us. Many pro-tes-tan-you nobles and towns, merchants and craftsmen have lost their property -va and would-be from-m-n-us.

One of the main historical events after the Ice War and the Weight of the World was the decline of the Holy of the -noy Rome-with-empire of the German-with-nation and its transformation into an amor-f-union of several so-ten su- ver-ren-nyh germ-man-s-kih go-su-dar-s-tv-mo-nar-hiy. Germany is ready to be a great country. Co-ro-li Sweden and France, ga-ran-you Weight-fal-from-the-world and raz-d-rob-len-nos-ty of Germany, Is it right to po-yang-but to interfere in German affairs. The even-even ti-tul im-per-ra-to-ditch of the Holy Rome-with-which-em-peri-re-found in such a way purely no- minimal meaning. The age-old struggle for ge-ge-mo-nia in Germany between Gab-s-bur-ga-mi and France emerged.

Austria after the Peace of Westphalia.

Emperor Leopold I (1658-1705) began to create his own empire around Austria on the basis of “us” ice-with-t-vein-powers,” trying to transform it into a great European country. For this purpose, he introduced a unified tax system for all of his dominions and established a central ve-dom. -t-for the rule of them, under-the-ru-vaya power of the local fe-dal estates. At the very height of these reforms, a terrible threat of Os-man’s invasion once again hung over Av-s-t-ri-it. In the second half of the 17th century. the sys-te-ma-ti-ches-kie-kho-dy arm-mi sul-ta-na against Ve-ne-tion, Poland, Russia. The first av-s-t-ro-Turkish war began in 1660. The army of the sul-ta-na, having defeated the army of the prince Trans-sil-va-nii, in those days a hundred years after the race of Ven-g-ria, which was the main support on-tsi-onal Ven-ger-s-koy go-su-dar-s-t-ven-nos-ti and hearth of Ven-ger-s-koy kul-tu-ry, approx. -li-zi-li-to the borders of Av-s-t-riya. Av-s-t-ri-tsy, under-country warriors of the Ven-ger-s-kih fe-odal-lovs, you-played this war, just like the re- -sha-y battle near Saint-Go-tar-da. One-on-ko, vop-re-ki expect-da-ni-yam and lo-gi-ke, fel-d-mar-shal Mont-te-kuk-ko-li did not press-le-do-vat na-go-lo-vu once-bi-go and demon-by-a-number-of-daughters-but-from-the-fall-she-against-none. Le-opold pos-sailed quickly to conclude your var-s-kiy peace (1664), which was in the hands of the os-ma-news all their za-vo-eva-niya.

Hungary as part of the Habsburg Empire.

The Emperor did not take advantage of the fruit of this large military force because at that time he was -shal complex and important trial-le-mu zak-re-le-niya and fact-ti-ches-to-join-to-gab-s-bur-g-s -kim vla-de-ni-yam to the west and se-ve-ro-behind the western part of Ko-ro-lion-from-t-va Ven-g-riya. Ven-ger-s-kaya ko-ro-na (ko-ro-to St. Ish-t-va-na, the first king of Ven-g-ri) went to Gab -from-bur-gam by marriage con-t-rak back in 1526. One-on-the-central part of the country was za-nya-ta- ma-na-mi, in the east in ka-ches-t-ve po-lu-not-for-vi-si-my-prince-zhe-t-va su-s-s-t-vo- wa-la Tran-sil-va-niya, and the western regions were under the rule of the Au-s-t-riy di-nas-tiya. But this power was weak and fragile. Gab-s-bur-gi didn't get away from-me-thread of the old so-loving con-s-ti-tu-tion of the lion-s-t-va, cog -lass-but-to-swarm-for-the-power-the-king-role-lil with Go-su-dar-with-t-ven-so-ra-ni-em. In ko-mi-ta-tah (ko-mi-tat (in Ven-ger-s-ki meg-ye) - the main ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tiv-naya unit -tsa Ko-ro-lev-s-t-va Ven-g-riya. -was a local nobleman. Strong fe-distal nobility of Ven-g-ria, eco-no-mi-ches-ki and po-li-ti-ches-ki ho-ro-sho or-ga -no-zo-van-noe, not-one-nok-rat-but car-g-love-la-lo countless an-ti-gab-s-bur-g-s-kie bun -you and the re-establishment, op-rav-shi-esya on the armed-wives under-support of the trans-sil-van-s-of the princes and not-in-cor- ny spirit of the free-but-loving Mad-Yar. Among the noble-pat-ri-ots, not-free-of-the-Av-s-t-ri-sky for-power, the idea of ​​an-ti-gab-s-bur-g was ripe -from the re-establishment for the purpose of restoring the national mo-narchy.

Your world was hastily concluded at the moment when the man-chi-vaya per-s-pek-ti-wa from -g-na-niya from the country of os-ma-nov, caused speech and ra-zo-cha-ro-va-nie even among pro-gab-s-bur-g- s-ki us-t-ro-en-noy ka-to-ches-koy aris-to-ra-tii. Many of her pre-s-ta-vi-te-leys about di-us for the protection of Ven-g-riy from the present-day tu-rock, since it is in the hope of the Av-s-t-riy ef-fek -tive help against Port-you ven-g-ry po-sa-di-li on the pres-tol Gab-s-burg-gov.

In 1670, a dangerous conspiracy arose between the largest Vienna-ger-s and Hor-vat-s-fe-odals, who joined the secret connection with the French court, the sworn enemy of the Empire. The next year it was opened and three of the thieves were executed. Le-opold I introduced a na-em-ni-kov army into the country, established a governor-at-tor-s-t-vo headed by a grand-sme-ster German-ko-knight-king-with-ko-or-de-na G. Am-p-rin-gen-nom. Due to the allegation that you took part in the battle, you-sya-chi nobles were brought before the court of the military tri-bu- na-la, they were con-fis-co-va-ny for the benefit of the treasury. The highest clergy, using the soldier, carried out a merciless con-t-r-re-formation: military-for-no-ma-li pro-tes-tan-t-s-kie churches and schools, pro-ved-ni-ki and teachers according to the pre-gov-ru courts from-p -were on the ha-le-ry in the slave-s-t-as usual. You-s-chi nobles, city-zhan, kre-pos-t-krest-t-yang, saving yourself from the senseless hard-cos-ti-ug- not-that-te-lei-, uk-ry-va-li in the north-eastern regions of the country near Trans-sil-va-ni-her us. Here, in 1670, the re-insurrection of the formidable and dis-sorry soldiers broke out, which was brought to the attention of the org -ni-zo-van-ny ha-rak-ter since 1678, when he was driven by a large landowner from Ned-vo-ryan Im-re Te-ke- whether.

In two years, the re-emerged under the leadership of Te-ke-li os-vo-bo-di-li from the Av-s-t-ri-tsev almost the entire the northern part of the ko-ro-lev-s-t-va. The Viennese courtyard was forced to abandon the settlement of the dis- p-ros-t-ra-thread on Ven-g-riya ab-so-lu- tis-t-s-kuyu price. Le-opold up-raz-d-nil governor-on-tor-s-t-vo and convened in 1681 after twenty-years of re-re-ry -va Go-su-dar-s-t-ven-noe meeting, which is from-b-ra-lo on-the-place of Prince P. Es-ter -ha-zi. Gathering under the-t-ver-di-lo of the nobles at-vi-le-gy and dis-solving in some of the co-mi-ta- tah svo-bo-du pro-tes-tan-t-s-koy re-li-gyi. A significant part of the nobles moved away from the uprising. He was pro-long-zha-li by the kre-yans and the army of Te-ke-li, who, one-on-ko, had-to-need-to-look-for p-ro-vi -tel-s-t-va sul-ta-na. This is a skom-p-ro-me-ti-ro-va-lo blissful de-lo, for which he fought, in the eyes of even pre-given his spod-vizh-nikov.

War with Turkey. Karlowitz world.

The concessions of the Ven-ger-s-to-the-court of the Ven-ger-s-to-the nobles-with-t-wu were made entirely in their own way: a new war with Porta was looming. Os-ma-ny, rimmed us-pe-ha-mi pov-s-tan-ches-koy army Te-ke-li and under-s-t-re-ka-em French -with the yard, in the summer of 1683, during military actions. June 10, the 200-thousandth army of the ve-li-ko-go vi-zi-ra Kara Mus-ta-fa pri-tu-pi-la to the osa-de im-per-s-koy capital Cities. The im-per-ra-tor with the yard settled down in the safe Lin-ts, the capital of Ver-h-ney Av-s-t-rii , having thrown into the hands of fate a huge city with its 12 thousand people. The Viennese fought bravely, but their forces were too unequal, and in September they were already on the wane. At last, the European mo-nars-hi-li, that Ve-na is the last “natural-t-ven-naya” preg-ra-da on pu -you can’t hold back those who tore into the depths of the kon-ti-nen-ta tu-rok-osmans. Under the influence of Pope In-no-ken-tiya XI, the king of Poland, Jan So-bes-kiy, concluded an alliance with him-per-ra- that-rum, to which-to-to-to-to-lu-chi-were carried-to-how-much-later-d-her Ve-ne-tsia, Gen-nuya, Tos-ka-na, Port-tu -Ga-lia, Is-pa-niya, and a few years later, Russia. Outside the union, the most powerful military country at that time remained - France. This is how the “Holy Li-ga” of Christ-ti-an-with-coy Ev-ro-py was formed against the Muslim-man-with-coy Os-man- s-coy im-peri. At the moment when Ka-ra Mus-ta-fa went to the decisive assault on Vienna, to help the siege -den-nym in the dos-pe-li-united-ska-s-s-yuz-ni-kov under the co-man-do-va-ni-em of the Duke of Karl-la Lo- ta-rin-g-s-ko-go and Pol-s-kaya army of Yana So-bes-ko-go. On September 12, they brought a decision to us.

In 1687, Le-opold I convened a Ven-ger-s-s-go-su-dar-s-t-ven-noe meeting and fought extremely important -nyh us-tu-pok in favor of di-nas-tiya: sos-lo-viya from-ka-za-li from the right-va you-bo-ra-ko-ro-lya, having recognized us-ice -s-t-ven-noe right of Gab-s-burgs (by husband's line) to the crown of St. Ish-t-va-na; there was from-me-no-but-the-same-ness of the “Golden Bull” (from 1222) about the military support nobles-with-t-va to-ro-lyu in the event of a conflict with them. Im-per-ra-tor-co-role from-the-hall-sya to bring Ven-g-rii Tran-sil-va-niu, about-to-carry-g-la-siv her sleep- cha-la you-greasy prince, and then his-ice-with-the-vein-possession.

Meanwhile, the war continued. In 1688, the im-per-tor-s-armies took the fortress of Bel-g-rad and invaded Bal-ka-ny. Obes-po-ko-en-ny Av-s-t-riy-ski-mi us-pe-ha-mi French-tsuz-s-king King Louis XIV, na-ru-shiv pe -re-mi-rie with Le-opol-dom, second-g-sya in the Palatinate, and the Av-s-t-ri-tsam had to transfer part of their forces to Germany. The war in the east was over and went on with a change of force until the av-s-t-ri- Prince Evgeny Sa-voisky did not rise up from the Russian troops. A brilliant half-co-vo-dets and a dip-lo-mat, he served in the battles for Ve-nu and Bu-du, at the age of thirty he lived -sya to fel-d-mar-sha-la. In 1697, the prince won from Zenta an is-to-ri-che-ches-kuyu-du-du, who decided the fate of Ven-g-ria and made it a riyu great der-zha-voy. A year later, in 1699, the world of Kar-lowitz was under-pi-san, which finally lived in-lu-to-ra-ve-ko- os-man-s-to-mu yoke over a significant part of Ven-g-ria. There was almost the entire territory of the co-ro-lev-s-t-va (including Tran-sil-va-niya and Hor- va-tiya-Sla-vo-niya), due to the use of a small region in the south - Te-mesh-s-kiy Ba-nat.

The ten-year war, in the course of which the te-at-rum of military actions became almost the whole of Ven-g-ria, the opus-shi-la country -Well. In addition, they-per-ra-tor-s-kie vo-ska behaved here as if for-e-eva-te-li, without-zas-ten-chi-in-gra-bya -se-le-nie. The godly trading center of Deb-re-tsen was turned into a city of beggars in one day. Supplying the 60-80 thousand army with the whole amount fell on the shoulders of the whole nation. The court generously granted con-fis-to-baths to the Hungarian nobles of the lands of foreigners - ge-ne-ra-lam and post-tav-schi-kam army. Au-s-t-riy ab-so-lu-tism came to the realization of its plan, agreed to something -mu, according to his author, Ven-g-riu follows-up-to-work, then do poor cabbage soup and something-or-chest-.”

But already in 1697 the Christians re-emerged and the fugitive soldiers joined them (Se-ve- ro-Eastern Ven-riya). To-kai, who was famous for his vi-na-mi, became the center of the uprising. However, having no allies, no org-ga-no-za-tion, no li-ches-ko-ru-ko-vo-s-t- wow, they were patient.

War of Liberation 1701-1711

In the early 16th-2nd centuries. again sharply ob-t-ri-los gab-s-bur-g-s-ko-bur-bon-s-something so-per-ni-ches-t-vo. The death of the childless Charles II of Is-pan-s-ko led to the next big European war. -go, after-ice-not-go Gab-s-bur-ha on is-pan-with-com pres-to-le. In 1701, a war broke out for Is-pan-with-us-ice, in which we found ourselves - almost all European countries. A year later, Austria had to fight on two fronts, not only against France, but also against Ven- gry, its co- Yuz-ni-tsy. The new an-ti-gab-s-bur-g-s-movement of the twenty-five-year-old Ferenc Ra-ko- qi II (1676-1735), because of the trans-strong-van-s-princes who fought in many wars about -tiv sul-ta-na and im-pe-ra-to-ra. The very name Ra-ko-tsi was a symbol of the fight for the national non-for-vi-si-most, since against the a-v-s-t-ri -tsev fought both his stepfather Im-re Te-ke-li, and his mother, the brave Ilo-na Zri-ni, for three years (1685-1688) you- der-zhi-vav-shay osa-du av-s-t-riy-tsa-mi cre-pos-ti Mun-kach (in the city of Mu-ka-che-vo, Uk-ra-ina) .

Letter, ad-re-so-van-noe Lu-do-vi-ku XIV F. Ra-ko-tsi, was in the spring of 1701 per-reh-va-che-but av-s-t -riy-tsa-mi, and he himself is imprisoned in a fortress near Vienna. He managed to escape thanks to a lucky escape. In Poland, where he hid, envoys arrived to Ra-ko-tsi from the Cross-Yan with a request to stand at the head of the uprising. In May 1703, Ra-ko-tsi presented the cross-yang-with-kim to the vo-zha-kam with a sign of the re-establishment with a slogan inscribed on it : “With God for birth and freedom!” Taking advantage of the fact that the main Au-s-t-riy forces were for-you on the pas-de-de, Ra-ko-tsi quickly -t-ro os-vo-bo-dil most of the country. His army in 1704 reached the borders of Av-s-t-ria, threatening Ve-ne,

Next, in 1705, Ra-ko-tsi convened the Go-su-dar-s-t-ven-noe meeting, which, about-vi-niv Gab- s-bur-gov in the na-ru-she-niy of the con-s-ti-tu-tion of Ven-g-ria, from-ka-za-elk to be recognized as a king by him-pe-ra -ra Joseph I (1705-1711), who replaced Le-opol-da I at the Aus-t-riy pres-t. Ra-ko-tsi was pro-voz -g-la-shen, the right-ruling prince of Ven-g-ri. France provided Ven-g-rii with ma-te-ri-al-nuyu, rather sim-like help: it was equal to the sting -vanyu five thousand soldiers, while the army of Ra-ko-tsi has 70 thousand of us. in-va-la na-dezh-da for connection with fran-ko-ba-var-s-ki-mi howl-ska-mi, one-on-the-last-for- stayed in Ti-ro-le, instead of moving towards Ve-na. Besides Ev-ge-niy Sa-voy-sky and bri-tan-s-to-the Duke of Mal-bo-ro, ancestor of W. Cher-chill-lya, in the battle at Hekh-sh-ted-ta succeeded in carrying out the same fran-co-ba-var-s-kim ar-mi-yam and with-os-ta-but - move them forward to the southeast along the Danube. The French troops left for the Rhine, the strat-te-gi-ches-kaya ini-tsi-ati-va moved to Av-s-t-ria and her co-yuz-ni-kam, An-g-lii and Holland-dia.

Rakoczi came to the builder-s-t-vu na-tsi-onal-no-go ven-ger-s-to-go-su-dar-s-t-va. Were there uch-re-de-ny se-nat for re-solving the most important state-su-dar-s-t-ven- affairs and eco-no-mi-ches-kiy vet, enter-de-on your own s-t-ven-naya va-lyu-ta - copper money. Na-cha-la from-da-va-t-sya first in the history of Ven-g-rii ga-ze-ta in La-tin-s-language “Mer-ku-ri-us” Very-di-kus”, new schools have opened; percentage of science and art. But the main thing is why the fate of the war and the country: to reconcile the ne-pre-mi-ri-my pro-ti-vo-speech two classes of society - in the month of the noble-s-t-va, who had already managed to seize a co-man-d- ny-zi-tions in the army and go-su-dar-s-t-ve, and the cre-pos-t-no-go kre-t-yan-s-t-va, - he never he succeeded, although he tried to alleviate the same hardship and he suffered the fate of the others more than once. In 1708, Ra-ko-tsi pos-ta-no-vil os-vo-bo-dit from the kre-pos-t-noy behind-vi-si-mos-ti kre-t-yan, who- Some will serve until the end of the war. From the fe-odal wine-noses to the benefit of the os-god-des-cre-pos-t-t-s who served in army For the first time in Hungarian history, the courtyards were not about the same. They all sa-bo-ti-ro-va-li these post-ta-nov-le-nia, keeping their cre-pos-t-from entering ar-miyu.

In the worse-sha-sha-shey-in-the-li-ti-ches-koy about-with-ta-new-ke Ra-ko-tsi os-t-ro needed support w-ke mo-gu-sches-t-ven-no-go so-yuz-ni-ka. Only Russia could have been like that in the current state of life at that time. In 1707, the prince entered into an alliance with Peter I, exchanged salt with him, and drank after -com in Russian-French-s-per-re-go-vo-rah. At the same time, Russia was deeply stuck in the Northern War, not with Sweden, but it also fought with the wasps. on-mi, that’s why I couldn’t provide any effective co-operation. Since 1708, from Ra-ko-tsi, military happiness has come. Strengthened fresh under-k-rep-le-ni-yami, the Av-s-t-riy troops won in Ven-gry one-on-one -follow the other one. Among the nobles, the reconciliation of us intensified. Dad-s-pres-tol is under threat from-lu-che-sweat-re-bo-val from the Viennese-s-s-s-ki-s-s-s-s-s-s-s-s-s-s-s “for the law of the king” Joseph I. Ra-ko-tsi went to Var-sha-va to meet with Peter I, in ru-chiv Shan-do-ru Ka-roy-i ko-man-do-va-nie ar-mi-ey-, as well as ve-de-nie per-re-go-vo-ditch with av-s-t -riy-tsa-mi for the purpose of taking time away. He signed the Sat-mar-s-kiy peace (1711) and you-nu-dil ven-g-row to lay down arms. The conditions of the world were comparable to us: they made a promise to respect the Con-s-ti-tu- tion of Ven-g-ria and freedom of faith. Participation in the war in am-nis-tiyu.

The amnesty was offered to Ra-ko-tsi, but the prince preferred the eternal ka-pi-tu-la-tion. From Var-sha-vy he went to Versailles, one-on-one, he couldn’t find a French support -Lya, he went to Turkey, where he lived until the end of his days. Ven-g-riya not for-vo-eva-la not-for-vi-si-mos-ti, but Sat-mar-s-kiy world interfered with Gab-s-bur-gam dis-p- growth-t-ra-thread ab-so-lu-tism on Wen-ger-s-ko-ro-lion-s-t-vo. Is-pan-with-kaya war, finished-chiv-sha-ya-ya under-pi-sa-ni-em in 1713-1714. Ut-rekh-t-s-ko-go and Rush-tat-tsko-go-go-vo-ditch, windows-cha-tel-but-li-shi-la-on-dezh-on-pri-ob-re-te -nie Av-s-t-ri-ey Is-pa-nii and is-pan-s-koy Amer-ri-ki. One-to-Gab-s-bur-gi at-about-re-li Sar-di-niu, Mi-lan, Man-tuya, Mi-ran-do-lu in Italy, Is-pan-s -Kie Ni-der-lan-dy (modern Belgium), a number of territories on the Rhine. In 1716-1718 Av-s-t-riya took away from Os-man-s-koy im-per-riy the last Viennese-ger-s-ter-ri-to-riya (Ba-nat), as well as part of Serbia with Bel-g-ra-dom, part of Bos-nia and Wa-la-chia. Thus, the empire of the Au-s-t-riy Gab-s-burgs in the early 16th-2nd centuries. reached the most significant value in the entire history of Av-s-t-rii ter-ri-to-ri-al-no-go race re-niya.

Socio-economic development of the empire.

This huge country, which is washed by the waters of Ad-ri-ati-ki, Middle-earth and Se- ver-no-go mo-ray-, still-not before-with-tav-la-la-amor-f-union-unity. There was neither a common management system, nor a common would it be possible to give some unity to the im-periy, including our own av-s-t-riy “us-ice” -s-t-ven-lands" together with the Czech-s-ki-mi, the lands of Wen-ger-s-co-rons, Belgium and Italy-yan-s- some pro-vin-tions. All parts of them were controlled by their own so-lov-ny uch-re-de-ni-yami, in agreement with their -im tra-di-tsi-yam, for-to-us, custom-cha-yam. Sometimes they are controlled by Av-s-t-riy na-mes-t-ni-ki, who did not have their own ap-pa-ra -ta.

In Austria, as in Ven- g-ria, state-under-s-t-va-li fe-distant from-no-she-nations - cre-pos-t- noe right in the village, village in the city. Yad-rum im-periy os-ta-va-li av-s-t-ro-czech pro-vin-tions, where ab-so-lyu-tiz-mu succeeded in to a significant degree to achieve the price. Trade and ma-nu-fak-tu-ry developed here. Ru-ko-vod-s-t-vu-yas prin-tsi-pa-mi mer-kan-ti-liz-ma, go-su-dar-s-t-vo po-osch-rya-lo you- cart of cloth, silk, taffe, par-chi, and also from glass and far-for-ra and one-new-re-men-but og-ra- no-chi-va-lo im-port. In the early 16th-2nd centuries. the Go-su-dar-s-t-ven-ny bank was established, the main one, for the fi-nan-si-ro-va-niya av-s-t-ro- Czech-s-kih ma-nu-fak-tour. For you to use the Belgian port of Os-ten-de, where the company was based for overseas what a trade. On Ad-ri-ati-ka, in Tri-es-te and Fi-um (Ri-eka) some new constructions began to arise, at -is it possible to build up to-ro-gi through the Al-py, connecting them with Av-s-t-ri-ey. This activity was especially intensive under Charles VI (1711-1740).

Pragmatic sanction. War of the Austrian Succession.

The strongest dis-ease of the Gab-s-burgs was caused by the fact that they had no son, just like and direct family from the husband's side. Di-nas-tii gro-zi-lo you-mi-ra-nie. Accordingly, it was decided to change the old law on the pres-up-of-us, so that it would be possible news on the pres-tol after the death of Karl his daughter Maria Te-re-zia. In 1713, Karl pro-voz-g-la-sil Prag-ma-ti-ches-kuyu san-k-tion, which introduced us-le-do-va-nie and for women with-which line, having declared us-ice-with-t-ven-us and not-do-we-we-have all the power of the di-nas-tiya. In 1723, the san-k-tion received a prize from the Go-su-dar-with-t-ven-collection of Ven-g-ri. Ve-na made enormous efforts to achieve the formal prize for the Prag-ma-ti-ches-san. k-tion euro-pei-ski-mi dvor-ra-mi. The last of them was Versailles.

However, when the em-per-ra-tor died in 1740 and 23-year-old Maria Te-re-zia ascended to the throne, in her right, vo-re-ki -they oblige-with-you, 1the claims have been revealed not only by France and Prussia, but also by Bavaria, Spain, Sa-voy-ya. Ba-var-s-kur-fürst is generally pre-ten-do-val to the Au-s-t-riy throne. The first “war for the Au-s-t-riy us-ice-t-vo” (1740-1748) was waged by Prussia, having captured Si-le-zia, the most time-vi-tu-tu-tu and bo-ga-tuy of us-ice-from-t-vein-lands. From behind-pa-yes to the foreign countries of the second-city with its own troops Karl Albert Ba-var-s-kiy-, who-about-th -tiv-ni-ki Gab-s-bur-gov from-b-ra-li the king of the Czech Republic and Rome-with-kim-per-ra-to-rum (Char-lom VII; 1742 -1745).

In this crisis, Ven-g-riya saved Av-s-t-riya from destruction. Having heeded the prayers of them-per-ra-ri-tsy and forgetting their grievances, ven-g-ry pre-dos-ta-vi-li in her dis-order de-ty -thousands of troops and not a lot of money. Ma-ria Te-re-zia su-me-la quickly settled with the ba-var-tsa-mi, restored her power in Che- hii and ver-nu-la to his soup-ru-gu Fran-zu Lo-ta-rin-g-s-to-mu ti-tul rim-s-ko-go im-per-ra-to-ra . Si-le-zia, one-on-one, settled behind Friedrich II. According to the Achaean world (1748) Ma-ria Te-re-zia from the same Par-mu and Pi-atzen-tsu, but won the prize of Prag -ma-ti-ches-koy san-k-tion Ev-ro-sing.

Seven Years' War.

Maria Te-re-zia did not reconcile with Si-le-zia’s po-te-rey, for which she was ready to take off her, as she vo-ri-la, “the last-ice-skirt.” She didn’t even ask for the “ko-var-s-t-va” of An-g-liya, she didn’t lay her finger on her to help with the nope. Together with the new kan-ts-le-r Count An-to-n Wen-tse-lem Ka-uni-ts, you-da-xia dip-lo-ma-tom of the era , Ma-ria Te-re-zia pri-tu-pi-la to the sko-la-chi-va-niy of the new an-tip-Russian coalition, in the core of the re-res- motor-roar ve-ko-vye at-ori-te-you tra-di-tsi-on-noy av-s-t-riy-skaya external po-li-ti-ki. The idea of ​​a new external concept at Ka-uni-tsu, for the past so many years -change-but-to-g-love-lyav-she-mu external-not-by-ti-ches-ve-dom-with-t-vo (1753-1793). His usi-li-yami, user-d-but under-der-zhan-ny-mi ma-dam Pom-pa-dur, in 1756 he was under-pi-san known in an- na-lah dip-lo-ma-ti-ches-koy is-to-rii Versal-s-kiy do-go-thief, the-lo-living end of the two-ve-how enemy -between Av-s-t-ri-ey and France. London responded to this with an immediate response from the Wes-t-min-s-ter-s-with-so-uz-no-go- talk with Prussia, thereby completing the deep-lo-ma-ti-chess-ku-ku-ku of a new war.

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) began again as a war for Si-lezia. Friedrich Ve-li-kiy, having decided to get ahead of-tiv-ni-kov, decided to go to Av-s-t-riya, ut-ver -div “preventive war” in inter-family relations in accordance with the current norms. But he woke up. Te-at-rum of military actions sta-la sa-ma Prussia. Her hundred was taken twice: sna-cha-la Russian-ski-mi and av-s-t-ri-tsa-mi, then Ven-ger-s-ki- mi gu-sa-ra-mi. Fried-ri-ha was saved from the window-cha-tel-no-go-g-ro-ma by the sudden exit from the war of Russia. Hu-ber-t-s-bur-g-s-ky peace of 1763 window-cha-tel-but zak-re-saw Si-le-zia for Pruss-si-ey. Austria had to fight two more small, local wars: for Poland in 1733-1735 . and for Ba-var-with-us-ice-with-t-in 1778-1779.

The policy of "enlightened absolutism".

Maria Teresia and her son Joseph II, her co-ra-vi-tel and Rome's im-per-ra-tor since 1765, could to re-form yourself, the meaning and purpose of which was the creation of the state-su-dar-s-t-va “pros-ve-schen-but- go ab-so-lu-tiz-ma.” The reforms were carried out mainly in the Czech Republic, on our icy lands. They demanded a lot of money, but the treasury was always empty. The re-shi-tel-noy per-res-t-roy-ke was under-verified before all the military-en-naya and ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tiv-no-fi -nan-so-vaya spheres. Ver-bov-ka us-tu-pi-la place of price-t-ra-li-zo-van-no-mu on-bo-ru rec-ru-tov for life-long service boo; there was os-no-va-na ven-s-kaya military aka-de-mia. Sos-lov-nye institutions were-for-me-ne-use-pol-ni-tel-ny-mi or-ga-na-mi go-su-dar-s-t- vein power, on-lo-go-voe de-lo the same re-yes-but in the hand of go-su-dar-s-t-va.

Maria Te-re-zia introduced a price-based system of accounting and control: she was the first in IS -that country re-writes the villages and land ownership-; from-me-ni-la na-lo-go-vye with-vi-le-gy of nobles and du-ho-ven-s-t-va. Near the house there was a decree-call carrying a lot of information about the -she-na bar-shchi-na up to three days in no-de-lyu instead of five - six; there was an og-ra-nothing-to-judicial power over the cre-pos-t-us. In 1776, the im-per-rat-ri-tsa locked up the middle-age torture and og-ra-ni-chi-la use of death -t-the execution-in-ka-chest-ve measures on-ka-za-nia, emphasizing the criminal law.

The school reform, which laid the living foundation for the nation's education, had a huge pro-resive significance. va-niya and a well-organized pro-du-man-noy system of schools of various stud-pe-neys: from de-re-ven-with-coy “three-vi-al-noy” -”, where children were taught reading, writing and arithmetic, to city and “normal” schools for rural training - some schools and universities, in which there is light and es-tes-t-ven-no-na -scientific dis-cip-li-nys are preferred before te-olo-gi-ches-ki-mi. Even more ra-di-kal-ny-mi, but for an hour ne-po-du-man-ny-mi and us-infantry under-ready-len-ny-mi became re -forms under Joseph II (1780-1790). Were there os-in-God-des-ny kre-t-yane av-s-t-ro-czech pro-vin-tions, as well as Ga-li-tions, occupied -chen-noy in 1772 according to the first time of Poland, and Bu-ko-vi-ny, from-tor-g-nu-that at Os-man-with-coy them -peri in 1775 Joseph II abolished the credentials; os-vo-bo-div cross-t-yan from personal za-vi-si-mos-ti, but keep them in the wine-nos-ti.

Important value for cultural and social development of a significant part of the world -go-on-tsi-onal-im-per-rii had pro-car-g-la-she-nie de-mok-ra-ti-ches-ko-go prin-tsi-pa ver-ro -ter-pi-mos-ti. “Pa-tent about to-le-ran-t-nos-ti” (ve-ro-ter-pi-mos-ti) from-menil dis-k-ri-mi-na-tion of the Greek-co- eastern (right-vos-lav-noy-) and about-tes-tan-t-with-coy church-k-vey-, pos-vo-lil about-tes-tan-there is free-bod- but to use your religion, for the sake of society and government debts -ti, build schools and churches. Rome-s-what-any-church has many of its rights and privileges, including the rights of pro- carry around dad-s-bulls without dignity go-su-da-rya. Joseph dis-allowed the re-li-gi-oz-nye or-de-na and mo-us-you-ri, not for-mav-shi-esya “for-le-z-no-no-nos” -tew” - treating the sick, educating children, etc. Yes, personal intervention is “sacred” the same father”, having been in Ve-nu, humble-ren-but ask Joseph from-me-thread of the church-but-re-li-gi-oz - new reforms or soften them an-ti-va-ti-kan-s-kuyu direction, had no us-pe-ha.

Obsessed with the idea of ​​creating an image of a mo-de-li “pros-ve-schen-no-go ab-so-lu-tiz-ma,” Joseph II walked head-on , without taking into account the in-te-re-sa-mi not only of individual persons, but also of classes and even entire nations. He did not consider that he was acting in the name and for the benefit of the nation. But he is just as sure that he can do without the people - according to the principle of “everything for the people” , but without his participation.” Desiring to beat max-si-mal-no-go unit-no-ob-ra-zia and strict price-t-ra-li-za-tion in the management of the Los -kut-noy im-per-ri-ey-, Joseph elevated the German language to the rank of a single-s-t-ven-no-go official-tsi-al-no-go (languages-ka-de -lop-ro-from-vod-s-t-va), at the same time all the other languages ​​of the empire are ranked second grew-those-foamy. This caused the disturbance of the de-formed nations and created a powerful movement for the development of the nation -onal li-te-ra-tu-ry and cul-tu-ry. Among some Slavic peoples, this movement entered history as a movement for “national re-birth." Des-po-ti-che-ches-me-dy-of-government-you-are-not-with-free-with-t-in Belgium and Vienna -riy, by the end of the 80s of the XVI-II centuries. they found themselves on the brink of danger.

The policy of “pro-ve-shchen-no-go ab-so-lu-tiz-ma”, pro-vo-di-may Joseph Gab-s-burg, could not decide more than once -re-shi-my for-da-chu - saved fe-odalism, having brought together the old, already outlived sos-lov-no-fe-odal- new eco-no-mi-ches-kie, so-ci-al-nye and po-li-ti-ches-kie struk-tu-ry to the sweat-re-nos-tym of the new bo-zhu-az- noah era-hi. About this evidence-de-tel-s-t-va-lo of the largest-neck an-ti-fe-distal-re-rising of the kre-pos-t-kre-t-yan in Tran -sil-va-nii (1784), in which about 20-30 thousand va-la-khov and mad-yar took part.

Counter-Reformation in the Czech Republic.

You have suffered severe trials on two Slavic peoples of the Empire - the Czechs and the Slovaks. During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), the Czech windows (1620) lost their own the nose, for a long time, having been per-s-baked for the re-birth not-for-vi-si-mos-ti. When we united the Czech lands with our ice-s-t-ven-powers, Gab-s-burg-gi didn’t go to lic-vi-da-tion of the Czech-s-co-lion-s-t-va, since but-si-those Czech-s-co-ro-s appeared kur-für-s-ta-mi Her-man-s-koy im-per-rii, and Gab-s-bur-gi like the Av-s-t-ri-er-ts-her-tso-gi are not had the right to vote in the election of kings and the im-per-ra-to-ditch of the Holy Rome with the im-peri-rii of the German -what the hell. They could only participate in these elections in the Czech Republic. Sos-re-do-to-chiv management of Czech lands in the early 17th century. in the Viennese courtyards of the kan-tse-la-ri-yah, Gab-s-bur-gi one-new-re-men-but sokh-ra-ni-sos-lov-nye lan -d-ta-gi (se-us) of the Czech Republic and Mora-via, indeed, with strongly ure-zan-my rights. Each of their decisions is subject to the approval of the vein-with-coy can-tery. This mother would have a great shower, but she has the right to approve of the questions about size and shape. ma-v-la-you on-log-gov, introduce-si-my pra-vi-tel-with-t-vom in Vienna, and solve some-of-the-questions months -t-no-th meaning.

The feudal lords of Czechia, Moravia, Si-le-sia retained their estates. In the re-zul-ta-those re-li-gi-oz-wars and pro-long-zhav-shih pres-le-do-va-niy pro-tes-tan-tov strongly from-me -nil-xia this-ni-ches-ky sos-tav noble-s-t-va Czech-s-co-lion-s-t-va: pre-o-la-da- The German element became dominant in him. The after-ice-s-t-via of the European re-li-gi-oz-wars turned out to be no less than gu-bi-tel-for the Czech lands. us-mi and opus-shi-tel-ny-mi, than the re-zul-ta-you os-man-s-to-na-she-t-viya for the lands of ven-ger-s- to their. Almost a quarter of the sap-ra-ti-elk on-the-le-nie-ko-ro-lion-with-t-va St. Vats-la-va, us-chi-you-vav-she- th in the beginning of the 17th century. 3.3 million inhabitants. More than one you-sya-chi de-re-ven, 102 cities and 278 castles were ra-zo-re-no. Re-li-gi-oz-but-po-li-ti-che-ches-go-non-niy, pro-in-div-shi-esya within the framework of con-t-r-re-for-ma- tions, continued with un-os-la-be-va-power in the first ten years and even in the seventeenth century -II century, when Av-s-t-riya entered the era of “pros-ve-shchen-no-go ab-so-lu-tiz-ma.”

Carrying out the con-t-r-re-form-ma-tion, Gab-s-bur-gi from-p-rav-la-li to the eternal village in the distance Corner of the Empire of the Che-khovs and the Germans about the faith, fire and ra-zo-re-niu pre-da-va-li bib- whether-ote-ki, German and Czech books-gi an-ti-ka-to-li-ches-ko-go, an-ti-fe-odal-no-go, an- ti-gab-s-bur-g-s-to-go-holding. It is no coincidence that the 17th century in the Czech national consciousness is remembered as “the era of darkness.” Nowadays you had to part with your birth, you are a thinker, a pedagog and a philosopher Jan Amos Ko-men-s-ky (1592-1670). From the autumn of 1650, for those five years, he worked in a college (higher school) in the Ven-ger-s-city -de Sha-rosh-pa-tak, made an important contribution to the training of personnel and the development of industry in Ven- g-riy.

Economic development of the Czech Republic.

After the Seven-year-old war, during which Prussia was in charge of most of Si-le-sia, this “pearl” -noy-» gab-s-bur-g-s-koy ko-ro-ny, for-more pro-mus-len-but-developed pro-vin-tsi-ey im-peri , eco-no-mi-ches-significance of the Czech lands with their rich industrial and agricultural the veins grew unusually in ten-tsi-al. In an effort to maximize the progress of the treasury, the Viennese courtyard conducts a whole series of ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tiv -nyh reforms, the meaning of which was concluded in the strengthening of the ab-so-lu-tis-t-with-what price-t-ra-li-za-tion with the purpose of developing the natural resources of the Czech Republic. Creates a single av-s-t-ro-czech eco-no-mi-ches-kiy and ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tiv-no-po-li -ti-ches-kiy com-p-lex, managed by a single organ - the united Czech-with-Austrian can-tse-la- ri-ey. Czech Republic, Mora-via and Av-s-t-riy Si-le-zia have become very important -go, and later and the factory-rich-but-for-water-with-to-go-from-water-with-t-va, the development of something all -mer-but capable-s-t-vo-va-la po-ro-vi-tel-s-t-ven-naya ta-mo-female-but-ta-rif-naya po-li-ti -ka from the yard.

Slovakia.

In other, less favorable societies, warehouses were used that-ri-che-che-destiny of other Slav-s-s-to-go, gen-s-t-ven-no-go che-boor na-ro-da - words-va-kov . Ethnic territory of words, which entered the Ko-ro-lev-s-t-va of Ven-g-ria over time neither its emergence in the 9th-10th centuries, nor was it ever pre-dated by a special ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tiv but-go or po-li-ti-ches-ko-go tse-lo-go, sucking not-de-my parts ko-mi-ta-tov ko-ro-lev-s -t-va. Ter-ri-to-ri-al-no-ge-og-ra-fi-ches-kaya raz-de-len-nost, usu-gub-len-naya pos-d-ne church-no-re -li-gi-oz-nym ras-ko-lom words-va-kov on ka-to-li-kov and pro-tes-tan-tov, zat-rud-nya-la their eth-no-so-ci -al-new and eth-no-cultural-tour-con-co-li-da-tion, which is not a-little-spo-sob-s-t-vo-va-li-same- but the number of cities and the date of the single word price. The sky-la-gop-ri-yat-noy from this point of view was and so-ci-al-naya struc-tu-ra na-se-le-niya. There are no-numbers, sokh-ra-niv-sha-yasya pre-im-s-t-ven-but in the mountainous regions there is a layer of middle and small-to-the-noble-s-t-va sos-tav-la-la in-teg-ral-nuyu part of the ven-ger-with-to-the-noble-s-t-va yes in those rare cases when some of her pre-s-ta-vi-te-were used by one of the di-alec- tov slo-vac-ko-go.

With race-ch-le-ne-ni-em Ko-ro-lev-s-t-va Ven-g-riya and ut-ver-zh-de-ni-em os-man-s-co-go -dy-ches-t-va above the middle part of Ven-g-rii, the center of the state-su-dar-s-t-ven-life of the gab-s-bur-g-s-coy Ven- g-rii (under-in-las-t-noy Gab-s-bur-gam chas-ti ko-ro-lev-s-t-va) moved to the north and here -ve-ro-za-pad. The influx of refugees, as well as the economic development, caused this ta-va ter-ri-to-riy-, on-se-len-nyh words-va-ka-mi. Once upon a time in the 17th century. there was a process of wording of certain cities, whereby you are not a German element. that spo-sob-s-t-vo-va-li ven-ger-s-noble-s-t-vo and Go-su-dar-s-t-ven-noe meeting. In the 17th century and in the first decades of the 16th-2nd centuries. on these lands the main co-existence of an-ti-gab-s-bur-g-s-os-os-in-bo-di-tel-nyh developed wars and uprisings of the Ven-ger-s-to-ro-yes, in which there are no participation and words. But one day, wars led to the destruction and decline of pro-div-in forces, the reduction of would-have-been coal, bla-go-rod-metals, to the decline of cities and cultural