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Resignation from leading party and government posts N.S. Khrushcheva in October 1964 was, as the next twenty years showed, important milestone V Soviet history. The era of the “thaw”, energetic, although often ill-conceived reforms, was replaced by a time marked by conservatism, stability, and a retreat to the old order (partial, not in all directions). There was no complete return to Stalinism: the party and state leadership, which did not hide its sympathy for Stalin's times, did not want a repetition of the repressions and purges that threatened his own well-being. And objectively the situation is in the mid-60s. was completely different from the situation in the 30s. Simple mobilization of resources, over-centralization of management, and non-economic coercion were useless in solving the problems posed to society by the scientific, technical, and later technological revolution. These circumstances were taken into account by the program launched in 1965. economic reform, the development and implementation of which was associated with the name of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR A. N. Kosygin. The idea was to update the economic mechanism, expand the independence of enterprises, introduce material incentives, and supplement administrative regulation with economic regulation. Already the idea of the reform was contradictory. On the one hand, it was proposed to rely on commodity-money relations and economic management methods. Enterprises independently planned the growth rate of labor productivity, average wages, and cost reduction. They had a large share of the profits at their disposal, which could be used to increase wages for workers. The number of planned indicators by which the activities of enterprises were assessed decreased, among them appeared such as profit, profitability, wage fund, volume of products sold. On the other hand, the reform did not dismantle the basic structures of the command system. The sectoral principle of economic management through ministries was restored. Directive planning remained in force, and the work of enterprises was ultimately assessed based on the performance of planned targets. The pricing mechanism, although slightly adjusted, remained essentially unchanged: prices were set administratively. The old system of supplying enterprises with raw materials, machinery, equipment, etc. has been preserved.
The reform gave good results. The decline in economic growth rates has stopped, and wages of workers and employees have increased. But by the end of the 60s. industrial reform has virtually ceased. In the 70-80s. the economy developed extensively: new enterprises were built (but only a few technically and technologically corresponded to the world level - VAZ, KamAZ), the production of irreplaceable minerals increased natural resources(oil, gas, ore, etc.), the number of people employed in manual and unskilled labor increased. Despite all efforts, the economy rejected the latest technological developments. Achievements scientific and technological progress were implemented extremely poorly. Meanwhile, the possibilities for such a costly growth model were steadily declining: the extraction of fuel and raw materials, moving to hard-to-reach areas of Siberia and Far North, became more expensive; population growth rates were declining, a problem arose labor resources; the equipment was wearing out and becoming obsolete. A heavy burden on the economy was the huge costs of military-industrial complex, which made it possible to maintain military-strategic parity (equality) with the United States. Qualitative indicators (labor productivity, profit, profit-to-cost ratio) were deteriorating.
It was a dead end: the command economy could not work effectively in the conditions scientific and technological revolution, but the country’s leadership still tried to solve all the problems mainly by administrative means. The deadlock is dangerous, because the gap between the developed world economy and the USSR economy was steadily increasing. The situation in agriculture also did not inspire optimism. Expenses public funds grew continuously (in the 70s they reached more than 30% of all budget expenditures), but the return was extremely small. The collective and state farm economy, while willingly accepting huge capital investments, did not demonstrate any noticeable growth in production.
Hence, very serious deformations in social sphere. Wage, incomes of the population were constantly growing, and this was an indisputable achievement. But neither industry nor Agriculture could not offer society a sufficient amount of goods, food, and services. Shortages, queues, “blat” (when necessary goods were purchased through acquaintance) were an indispensable phenomenon Everyday life these years. At the end of the 70s. V individual regions countries, a rationed distribution of some products on cards reappeared. The emergence and growth of the so-called “shadow economy” (underground workshops, “speculation”, etc.) in these conditions was a natural and even inevitable phenomenon. In social political life In the country, conservative tendencies reigned supreme. Their ideological justification was the concept of developed socialism, according to which the slow, systematic, gradual improvement of real socialism, built “completely and completely” in the USSR, will take a whole historical era. In 1977, this concept was enshrined in law in the preamble new Constitution THE USSR. For the first time, the thesis about the leading and guiding role of the CPSU received the status of a constitutional norm. The Constitution declared the USSR a state of the entire people and proclaimed a full set of democratic rights and freedoms of citizens.
Real life did not fully comply with the requirements of the Constitution. Adviсe people's deputies all levels remained a decoration, power belonged to the party apparatus, which prepared and made all major decisions. His control over society, as in previous years, was comprehensive. Another thing is that the apparatus and the nomenklatura that made it up (party and state officials a certain level), using the term of those years, “reborn”. L. I. Brezhnev, who for 18 years held the post of First (from 1966 - General) Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, considered it necessary to maintain personnel stability of the apparatus, strengthen its privileges, and refrain from harsh actions in relation to the nomenklatura. The party elite, sensitive to the changes , was burdened by the fact that her omnipotence was not supported by property. The further, the more she sought to secure for herself the share of public property that she controlled. The merging of the party-state apparatus with the “shadow economy” and corruption began in the 70-80s. important factor socio-political life. Officially, their existence was recognized as new after Brezhnev’s death. Secretary General Central Committee of the CPSU Yu. V. Andropov (1982-1984). The investigation of criminal cases in which high-ranking managers and officials were accused showed the scale and danger of the crisis.
The crisis was also evidenced by the emergence of the dissident movement (see ticket No. 23). Human rights, religious, national, environmental organizations, despite the repressions of the authorities (arrests, camps, exile, deportation from the country, etc.), they opposed neo-Stalinism, for reforms, respect for human rights, rejection of the party’s monopoly on power, etc. The dissident movement was not massive, but it spoke of growing opposition sentiments, dissatisfaction with the current situation. The apathy, indifference, and cynicism that struck society, in their own way, but just as clearly confirmed this conclusion. The most stable era in Soviet history ended with its own denial: society demanded change. Stability turned into stagnation, conservatism into immobility, continuity into crisis.
Foreign policy of the USSR from the mid-60s to the mid-80s:
Foreign policy of the USSR in the mid-60s - mid-80s. was aimed at achieving three main goals: to strengthen its influence in the socialist community, to unite world system socialism, to prevent any countries from falling away from it; improve relations with developed countries the West, primarily with the USA, Germany, France, to ensure peaceful coexistence with them; expand its sphere of influence in the “third world”, intensify military-technical and economic cooperation with developing countries. Relations with socialist countries. In 1964-1985. in relations with socialist countries, the USSR adhered to the so-called “Brezhnev doctrine”: to preserve the socialist camp by all means, maximally strengthening the leading role of the USSR in it and actually limiting the sovereignty of the allies. For the first time, the “Brezhnev Doctrine” was used when bringing in troops from five countries Warsaw Pact to Czechoslovakia in August 1968 to suppress processes recognized as anti-socialist (“Prague Spring”). But it was not possible to fully implement this doctrine. China, Yugoslavia, Albania, and Romania occupied a special position.
In the early 80s. The performances of the Solidarity trade union in Poland almost forced the Soviet leadership to take advantage of the Prague experience. Fortunately, this was avoided, but the growing crisis in the socialist world was obvious to everyone. Relations with China were especially tense. The Chinese Communist Party, like the CPSU, claimed leadership in the world communist movement. The conflict went so far that China advanced to the USSR territorial claims, and in 1969 provoked military clashes in the area of Damansky Island. In the 70s The Chinese leadership sharply criticized “Soviet hegemony”, nullifying the economic and political cooperation from the USSR.
Relations with Western countries. Second half of the 60s - 70s. - the time of detente in relations between the USSR and capitalist countries. It was initiated by French President Charles de Gaulle. In 1970, L. I. Brezhnev and German Chancellor W. Brandt signed an agreement recognizing the post-war borders in Europe. In 1972, Germany signed similar agreements with Poland and Czechoslovakia.
In the first half of the 70s. The USSR and the USA entered into a number of agreements to limit the arms race. Official meetings of the Soviet and American leadership took place at top level(1972, 1973, 1974, 1978).In 1975 in Helsinki, 33 European states, as well as the USA and Canada signed the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe on the principles of interstate relations: respect for sovereignty and integrity, non-interference in internal affairs, respect for human rights, etc. The results of the Helsinki Conference were understood differently by East and West. The United States and its European allies emphasized the humanitarian aspects of the agreements reached (human rights, personal integrity, etc.). The USSR attached primary importance to the principles of non-interference in internal affairs and the inviolability of post-war borders in Europe; sovereign equality and respect for the rights inherent in sovereignty, including the right to freely choose and develop one's political, economic and cultural systems. Détente in general was controversial phenomenon. It became possible not in last resort because by 1969 the USSR had achieved military-strategic parity (equality) with the USA. The superpowers continued to arm themselves. The arms race rapidly intensified. The USSR and the USA opposed each other in regional conflicts, in which they supported forces fighting against each other (in the Middle East, Vietnam, Ethiopia, Angola, etc.). In 1979, the USSR sent a limited military contingent to Afghanistan. The discharge did not withstand this test. New frosts have arrived. " Cold War" resumed. Mutual accusations, notes of protest, disputes and diplomatic scandals have become integral elements of the system international relations in the first half of the 80s. Relations between the USSR and the USA, the Warsaw Department and NATO reached a dead end.
USSR and third world countries. As was said, relations with the countries of the “third world” were largely subject to the logic of the strategic confrontation between the USSR and the USA. In the Middle East, the USSR took a clearly pro-Arab position, maintaining friendly relations with Syria and Egypt, the leaders Arab world. When Egyptian President A. Sadat concluded a peace treaty with Israel in 1979, contacts with it were virtually frozen. During American aggression in Vietnam (1964-1975) the USSR provided significant military-technical assistance Democratic Republic Vietnam. Supported the USSR and anti-American rebels in Nicaragua. An active policy was carried out in Africa, where Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau, and Ethiopia were under Soviet influence. Introduction Soviet troops to Afghanistan (December 1979) marked the beginning of a long military conflict in which the USSR suffered great human, material, and moral losses. It was a grave mistake, the tragic consequences of which still remind us to this day.
During this period, serious changes began to occur in the state, which transformed all spheres of the social, economic and political life of citizens of the Soviet Union. The changes were very rapid and controversial, their scope was so wide that they had a serious impact on the world political arena.
By the beginning of the eighties, the USSR had reached a new level technical development, at this time many types of domestic household appliances were produced, military technologies were comparable to foreign ones, and some types of military aircraft were the best of their kind. Perhaps, only during this period did the country produce domestic televisions, the first computers and other electronics; since the collapse of the Union, almost all of this has ceased to be produced. The country managed to create a unified energy and transport system, systems for gas and oil supply were created, interregional ties in the economic sector became closer. However, at the same time it affected centralized policy central government.
At party congresses, the country's authorities made decisions aimed at eliminating the negative effect of dictatorship in the departmental bureaucracy. Attempts have been made to improve economic methods management, they tried to give enterprises greater independence. However, everything decisions made were not put into practice, the country was never able to emerge from the period of stagnation.
Briefly describing the USSR in the 80s, many researchers associate this period with the policy of “Perestroika”, which was formed by Andropov in 1984. In 1985, the new Secretary General, Gorbachev, began to promote it. Perestroika was elevated to the level state ideology, at first it caused euphoria among the population. However, a year later, the country's leadership realized that command-administrative methods would not allow for real improvement, so attempts were made to introduce reforms characteristic of democratic socialism.
In 1989, society could not withstand the ideological overstrain. Perestroika did not live up to the hopes of citizens, at the same time, democratization made it possible to create new political movements, which at a certain point became completely uncontrollable communist party. At the same time, other destabilizing processes were taking place in the country. Direct participation in the protracted Afghan war The Union could no longer hide from its own people; maintaining its military forces abroad required large investments. By the end of the 1980s, the economic system was staggering and practically collapsed when the price of oil on the world market fell to record lows. Cheap oil has actually destroyed one of the most powerful states in the world. Long years mismanagement on the part of the authorities all took their toll.
Virtual tour in grocery stores in the USSR.
The issue of food costs is very relevant today. A few years ago, when going to the polls, candidates assured that they would return sausage at 2.20. This was almost the first point of their program. Now the situation has changed a little, but the prices of the 70-80s in the Soviet Union cause nostalgia for some, and irritation for others.
Going constant comparison those prices and modern ones. This does not take into account the level of wages and the cost of products, which have increased many times over due to world prices for petroleum products and fertilizers. And if you consider that all agriculture was subsidized, then the prices in stores and on the market become understandable.
It should also be noted that there were at least three categories of supply. The capital was provided with everything. Industrial centers fell into the first category. Their stores always had a lot of different goods. IN regional centers And big cities the choice was limited. Provision of small towns, regional centers and, especially, villages was carried out on a residual basis. Today many people remember how they went to industrial centers for sausage, fish, canned food. Suburban trains They even got the name “sausage trains”.
And so imagine, we are in the Soviet Union in the stagnant Brezhnev times. We have to set the table for a family holiday dinner. First, we go to the bread store. We take a white bun for 20-24 kopecks, a rye roll for 16 kopecks, a loaf for 13 kopecks and butter buns depending on the size from 4 to 20 kopecks.
In a meat and dairy store, pork is 2.00 - 2.20, beef - 1.90 - 2.00, lamb - 1.80. For jellied meat you can get pork legs for 0.32 - 0.60, beef legs for 0.20 - 0.30, chicken legs for 0.90 - 2.30 per kilogram. In the next department we buy milk on tap for 0.22 or in packaging for 0.34 kopecks per liter, a half-liter bottle of kefir for 0.30, having previously returned the empty one for 0.15. On the store display are 400 gram cans of condensed milk for 0.55. Of course, all these products could be purchased on the market, but all this would cost at least twice as much.
Before we go further, let's stop to drink kvass. We will pay 0.03 for a glass, and 0.06 for a glass. Or soda fountains will attract our attention - a glass with syrup is 0.03, without syrup - 0.01. The assortment of ice cream was much smaller than today. It cost customers 0.07 - fruit, milk - 0.10, cream - 0.13, ice cream - 0.15, popsicle - 0.22.
The "Fish" store will please you, if you're lucky, with live carp 0.75 - 0.80, fresh frozen sturgeon 5.00 - 9.35, but more often frozen hake 0.20 - 0.40, salted herring in bulk 1.30 - 1.54, Ivasi herring - 3.00, sprat 0.30 per kilogram.
In the "Gastronom" in the "Grocery" department, let's try to buy buckwheat - 0.52, granulated sugar - 0.90, flour - 0.46, coarse rock salt - 0.10 per kilogram. A pack of Indian tea cost 0.90, a can of instant coffee cost 6.00.
For confectionery products, we will buy a pack of Strawberry cookies - 0.26 and a pack of Yubileiny - 0.28, Belochka candies - 3.40, Kara-Kum - 4.00, a box of chocolates from 1.90 to 8.26.
For a traditional Olivier salad, you need to take boiled sausage 2.20 - 2.60, a jar of mayonnaise - 0.33, a dozen eggs 0.90 - 1.20, a jar of peas - 0.39.
Not bad to cut for the table raw smoked sausage- 4.87 - 5.20, cheese - 2.70 - 3.50, boiled pork - 4.00 - 5.50. You can make, but it’s problematic to buy, sandwiches with caviar: a jar of red (140 g) cost 3.50 - 4.20, black (112 g) - 5.50 - 6.00.
Among canned goods, sardines were popular - a can 0.60 - 0.72, canned cucumbers and tomatoes - 0.40 - 0.50.
Similar material: Salads originally from the Soviet Union
A student's breakfast most often consisted of a cup of tea, bread and butter, squash caviar for 0.42 or canned food "Tourist's Breakfast" for 0.33.
As for drinks, we give preference to wines: dry Moldavian 2.10 - 2.70, Georgian 3.00 - 4.00, Bulgarian 1.70 - 2.30. Fortified fruit and berry 1.10 - 1.80, grape - 2.30, vintage 2.88 - 4.24. We will spend from 4.40 to 13.60 on “Three Stars” cognac, 3.50 - 5.00 on vodka 0.5 liters, 3.50 - 5.00 on beer - 0.37 half a liter. The price included the price of a container of 0.12, which could be immediately returned or exchanged with an additional payment for a drink.
The state price of vegetables was as follows:
potatoes 0.12 - 0.15, cabbage 0.08 - 0.10, beets 0.09, onions 0.10-0.12, watermelon 0.05-0.10, apples - 0.20 - 0.50. But in trading network, unfortunately, everything was very Low quality. Agricultural products could also be purchased at the collective farm market. The prices were set by the farms, so the cost was 2-3 times higher.
(Read similar material: What were the prices in Soviet times)
Relations of the USSR with capitalist countries
Both the internal situation and the foreign policy of the Soviet Union in the late 60s - early 80s. was characterized by inconsistency, leading to both success and serious problems in international relations
The Soviet government set itself the task of achieving a turn away from the Cold War, from tension in the international situation to détente and cooperation. In 1969, the UN General Assembly approved the draft non-proliferation treaty proposed by the Soviet Union nuclear weapons. In 1970, the agreement came into force.
Foreign policy objectives are reflected in the adopted 1971 XXIV Congress of the CPSU Peace Program.
Believing that the confrontation between the two political systems historically inevitable, the CPSU considered its goal to direct this struggle in a direction that did not threaten dangerous military conflicts or confrontation between socialist and capitalist states.
Soviet Union in the context of the Peace Program contributed over 150 various offers aimed at ensuring international security, ending the arms race and disarmament. However, many of them could not be implemented and had a propaganda meaning.
Conclusion in 1972. Between the USSR and the USA, the agreement on the limitation of strategic arms (SALT-1) was the beginning of the policy “ détente”.
In 1973, an open-ended Agreement on the Prevention of nuclear war between the USA and the USSR. The culmination of the détente process was Meeting on Security and Cooperation in Europe. The leaders of 33 European countries, the USA and Canada signed in Helsinki Final Act in August 1975.
Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Helsinki)
This document discussed the need to comply with interstate relations principles of sovereign equality, non-interference in each other's internal affairs, peaceful settlement of disputes, respect for human rights. The inviolability of the borders of European states was recognized.
A little earlier ( 1971) The Soviet Union, the United States, Great Britain and France entered into a quadripartite agreement on West Berlin, recognizing it as an independent city. The borders of the GDR, Poland, and Czechoslovakia were recognized as inviolable.
First half of the 70s. showed the possibility of softening the international situation, strengthening relations of peaceful coexistence between states with different political system, including the development of cooperation between them.
However, the confrontation between the USSR and the USA sharply intensified due to the introduction limited contingent Soviet troops in Afghanistan in December 1979. Political leadership pulled the Soviet Union into extreme difficult situation, which made great sacrifices on both sides. The majority of UN member countries not only did not support this action, but also demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops.
The participation of the USSR in the Afghan war led to a decline in its prestige in the international arena. The US Senate refused to ratify the treaty signed with the USSR on further restrictions nuclear weapons(OSV-2).
The further course of events led to complications international situation. In response to the deployment of American missiles in Europe, the Soviet leadership decides to deploy medium-range missiles in the GDR and Czechoslovakia. Has begun new stage in the arms race, as a result of which Europe found itself in the role of a hostage.
In 1983, the United States began placing its missiles in Western Europe. The Soviet Union took similar actions, which required additional material costs, which could not but affect the state of the Soviet economy, intensifying the growth of crisis phenomena.
USSR and socialist countries
The leadership of the USSR in the early 60s - 70s. expanded interaction with socialist countries. In 1971 it was adopted Comprehensive program socialist economic integration. This meant the international division of labor, the rapprochement of the economies of the CMEA states, and the expansion of trade turnover. The International investment bank(MIB). With the technical assistance of the USSR, they were erected nuclear power plants in Bulgaria and the GDR, plants were built in Hungary and Romania.
However, relations with the socialist camp were also tested moments of crisis.
Events in Czechoslovakia in 1968., called the “Prague Spring”, were caused by the attempt of the Czechoslovak leadership led by A. Dubcek to build “socialism with human face". This meant in practice the introduction of market mechanisms into the country's economy, which caused a response from the Soviet leadership, which assessed such activities as “ counter-revolution" IN Czechoslovakia Troops from the USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany and Poland were brought in.
Confrontational relations also developed with China. In the spring of 1969, an armed clash occurred between Soviet and Chinese military units in the area of the border river Ussuri. The conflict flared up over Damansky Island, the territorial affiliation of which was not clearly defined. The incident almost escalated into the Sino-Soviet war.
The general situation in the world left its mark on the relations between the socialist countries, where the Soviet Union occupied a dominant position.
V 1985. was accepted Comprehensive program of scientific and technological progress of the CMEA member countries until 2000. The solution to this program was supposed to help strengthen the position of socialism in the world community. But, as practice has shown, approximately 1/3 of the program did not meet the requirements of the world level of development of science and technology. The program in its initial implementation turned out to be not one that could bring about scientific and technological progress.
In socialist countries, serious changes were brewing, associated with radical changes in all aspects of life.
1970–1980 went down in the history of the USSR as the years of “stagnation” in politics, national relations. In the socio-political life of the country: 1) conservative tendencies reigned supreme. The concept of developed socialism received official approval, according to which the slow, systematic, gradual improvement of real socialism, built “completely and completely” in the USSR, will take an entire historical era. In 1977, it was legislated in the introduction to the new Constitution of the USSR. The Constitution also enshrined the thesis about the leading and guiding role of the CPSU; 2) in practice, not all democratic freedoms proclaimed by the Constitution were fulfilled. In particular, the Councils of People's Deputies at all levels remained only a decoration, and real power belonged to the party apparatus. His control over society remained comprehensive; 3) the apparatus and the nomenklatura that made it up, party and state officials of a certain level, to use the term of those years, were “degenerated.” L.I. Brezhnev, who held the post of First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee for 18 years, considered it necessary to maintain personnel stability in the apparatus. Most ministers and regional committee secretaries at that time held their positions for 15–20 years. 4) the party-state apparatus is merging with the “shadow economy”, corruption
No. 52. The USSR in the system of international relations in the 70-80s. "Cold War"
In the 70s, the international authority and influence of the USSR grew significantly. And also the 1970s went down in history as the era of détente. The American leadership recognized the existence of military-strategic parity between the USSR and the USA, that is, approximate equality of weapons. During negotiations between the leaders of the USSR and the USA, various treaties on the limitation of strategic arms were signed.
In the 1970s, cooperation between the USSR and the countries of the “socialist commonwealth” deepened, which was especially evident in the course on integration (unification) economic systems. In 1971, a Comprehensive Program of Socio-Economic Integration was adopted, which provided for international socialist specialization (international division of labor), the creation of a single market of socialist countries, the rapprochement of currency systems, etc.
At the turn of the 1970s-1980s, the international situation deteriorated sharply. The leading powers turned from the policy of détente towards confrontation (confrontation). The USA and the USSR found themselves involved in an arms race.
In 1983 - 1984 The US deployed winged nuclear missiles medium-range missiles aimed at the USSR, Germany, Great Britain and Italy. In turn, the USSR sharply increased the use of force and the threat of force in foreign policy. In 1979, the USSR became involved in the war in Afghanistan (9 years). Most UN member countries condemned the actions of the USSR. During the war in Afghanistan, the USSR lost 15 thousand people killed and 36 thousand wounded. Each day of the war cost 10-11 million rubles. In 1980, capitalist countries announced a boycott of the XXI 1st Olympic Games in Moscow. In 1984, the USSR deployed medium-range nuclear missiles on the territory of the GDR. In response to this, all leading capitalist countries declared a scientific and technological boycott of the USSR and its allies. The West launched a broad anti-Soviet and anti-socialist campaign
Expanding its sphere of influence, the USSR provided assistance to various Third World states. The USSR in one form or another participated in armed conflicts in Angola, Ethiopia, and Somalia. By the mid-80s, insolvency foreign policy The USSR became obvious, new approaches were required