Phraseologism- this is a stable combination of words characteristic only of a given language, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the words included in it, taken individually. Due to the fact that phraseological units cannot be translated literally (the meaning is lost), difficulties in translation and understanding often arise. On the other hand, such phraseological units give the language a bright emotional coloring. Often the grammatical meaning of idioms does not correspond to the norms of the modern language, but are grammatical archaisms. An example of such expressions in Russian: “stay on your toes”, “keep your head down”, “give back”, “play the fool”, “point of view”, etc.
The main features of a phraseological unit. In order to separate phraseological units from other linguistic units, in particular from words and free phrases, it is necessary to determine the characteristic features of phraseological units.
1. Reproducibility of phraseological units in speech as finished units. Stable combinations exist in language as a set of ready-made, previously created linguistic formations that need to be remembered in the same way as we remember words.
2. Integrity of the meaning of phraseological units is that, despite the dismemberment of the structure, they have a generalized holistic meaning, which, as a rule, is a rethinking of the phrase, which is based on a specific semantic content. Clear examples of the fact that the meaning of a phraseological unit does not consist of the meanings of its components are stable combinations, one of the members of which is obsolete and has no use in modern language outside the boundaries of this expression. However, the speaker does not have the feeling that this word is unfamiliar to him, since he knows the general, holistic meaning of the entire phraseological unit. Expressions in which one can trace the connection between the general meaning of a stable combination and the meanings of its constituent components also have a generalized holistic meaning.
3. Constancy of the component composition, stability distinguishes phraseological units from free phrases. A feature of stable combinations is that they are, as a rule, constant in composition and structure, i.e. they contain certain words arranged in a prescribed order. The interchangeability of the components of a phraseological unit is possible only in general linguistic phraseological variants, i.e. in stable combinations that have the same meaning, the same figurative structure, but differ in their lexical and grammatical composition.
4. Equivalence of phraseological units and a separate word means that the stable combination has much in common with the word. Like a word, it is a unit of language, reproduced in finished form, and not created anew each time, has an independent meaning and grammatical correlation, which lies in the fact that a phraseological unit, like a word, refers to a specific part of speech. We can distinguish nominal phraseological phrases (a shot sparrow - an experienced person), adjectives (there are not enough stars from the sky - about an ordinary, unremarkable person) verbal ones (to be stumped - to be in a difficult situation); adverbial (working tirelessly - diligently, tirelessly), interjectional (know ours! - about praising yourself). Many phraseological units in meaning correspond to one word (put it on both shoulder blades - win). Set phrases are close to words in their syntactic function, since they serve as a separate member of a sentence. For example: She turned the head of more than one Adam’s grandson (M. Lermontov);
5. Separate formatting of phraseological units is that it includes at least two verbal components, each of which is grammatically formalized as an independent unit, i.e. has its own emphasis and its own ending. This is the main difference between a phraseological unit and a word.
6. Imagery of phraseology is that many stable phrases not only name phenomena, signs, objects, actions, but also contain a certain image. This applies primarily to those phraseological units, the meanings of which were formed on the basis of a linguistic metaphor, as a result of the similarity and comparison of two phenomena, of which one becomes the basis for comparison, and the other is compared with it. For example, the phraseological unit grated kalach, denoting an experienced person who has seen a lot in life, correlates with grated kalach (the name of one of the varieties of kalach), which is rubbed and kneaded for a long time before baking. This creates the imagery of the phraseological unit. Some phraseological units of the Russian language lack imagery. These include various kinds of semantically indivisible combinations, which are compound names and terms (such as coal, agenda, safety pin, eyeball), as well as phraseological units such as have meaning, win.
7. Emotionally expressive coloring phraseological units is manifested in the fact that most phraseological units of the Russian language, in addition to the nominative function, also perform a characterological function: they not only name some objects, phenomena, actions that exist in objective reality, but at the same time evaluate the named objects, phenomena, actions. The emotional and expressive significance of phraseological units in the Russian language is different. Some of them have minimal expression (expressiveness), for example: standing in the ears - “constantly being heard.” Others have a pronounced expression and serve as a means of emphasizing what is being said. These are, for example: to be in full swing - “to flow violently, to manifest.” The presence of emotional-expressive coloring in phraseological units can be traced in synonymous phraseological units, which, with a general meaning, can differ in their coloring. For example, about a person who can do everything, they say a jack of all trades (positive assessment), a jack of all trades out of boredom (jokingly ironic assessment), and a Swede, a reaper, and a player of the pipe (jokingly ironic assessment).
8. Phraseology, the non-free meaning of one of the components is a characteristic feature of most stable combinations. For some phraseological units, it manifests itself in the fact that its component has a phraseologically related meaning in the language, the main features of which are the lack of semantic independence and dependence in the choice of the lexical environment. For example, the phraseological nature of the meaning of the word “sworn” is manifested in the fact that it has its meaning only in a certain lexical environment, in combination with the word “enemy”: sworn enemy - “irreconcilable enemy” - and outside of this stable combination it is not used in the Russian language. The phraseological meaning of one of the components of a stable combination of another type is manifested in the fact that this component acquires a special phraseologically related meaning only within the framework of a given phraseological unit, and outside it it can have an independent meaning and be used in many free combinations. For example, the word “white” is used in the language with its own independent meaning in free combinations (white paper, white snow), but only within the framework of the stable combination white crow does it acquire its special, phraseologically related meaning - “unlike others, standing out for something” "
9. Idiomatic phraseology manifests itself in the fact that its semantically indivisible meaning is not derived from the meanings of its constituent components, taken separately, and does not coincide with them. Hence the impossibility of accurately translating phraseological units into other languages; this can be explained by the presence of specific laws inherent in this particular language. If free phrases are constructed mainly according to the general laws of linguistic reflection of extra-linguistic reality, then the use of words as part of a phraseological unit is determined by the specific laws of the system of a given language.
* Questions of the semantics of phraseological units have recently attracted increasing attention from phraseology researchers, who, noting the specifics of their semantics, use a variety of names: generalized metaphorical meaning (S. A. Abakumov), semantic monolithicity (P. P. Kalinin), single holistic meaning (V.V. Vinogradov), semantic idiomaticity (A.I. Smirnitsky), etc. Such an abundance of names to indicate the semantic specificity of phraseological units reflects the undoubted complexity of this phenomenon, associated with insufficient knowledge of the issue itself.
The main feature of phraseological units is their completely or partially rethought meaning. Only a part of phraseological units are identified by individual lexemes, while most of them can be defined only with the help of a phrase or a detailed description. The semantic originality of a phraseological unit lies in the specificity of the combination of components, thus, they act not only as parts of the main semantic components of the phraseological unit, but also as connecting links between them. These components are the minimum units of semantics of phraseological units and perform meaning-determining or meaning-forming functions.
* The classification of phraseological units is based on the sign of semantic unity of components, less or more motivation of the meaning of a phraseological unit. Following Academician V.V. Vinogradov, it is customary to distinguish three main types: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.
Phraseological adhesions- these are phraseological units that are indecomposable in meaning, their holistic meaning is absolutely not motivated by the meanings of the component words, for example: to hit the bulls, get into trouble, sharpen the lasses, turuses on wheels, headlong, etc. Phraseological units often contain words that are not used independently in modern Russian.
Phraseological unities– these are phraseological units, the integral meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of their components. Examples of unities: pull the strap, float shallowly, bury talent in the ground, suck it out of your finger, lead by the nose, etc. One of the characteristic features of phraseological unities is their imagery. The presence of imagery distinguishes phraseological unities from the free combinations of words homonymous to them. So, in the sentence The boy lathered his head with toilet soap, the combination lathered his head - free, it has a direct meaning and is devoid of any imagery; in the sentence I'm afraid that the boss might lather his head for being late, the combination lathered his head is used figuratively and represents a phraseological unity.
Phraseological combinations- these are phraseological units, the holistic meaning of which is made up of the meaning of the components and at the same time one of the components has a so-called associated use. To understand what a related use is, consider the phrases: fear takes, envy takes, anger takes. The verb to take used in these phrases is not combined with every name of feelings, but only with some, for example: you cannot say “joy takes,” “pleasure takes.” This use of a verb is called bound (or phraseologically bound). Related is the use of the word ticklish in phrases: a ticklish question, a ticklish matter; The adjective ticklish does not combine with other nouns, even those close in meaning to the words question and deed.
As in phraseological combinations, many words that are part of phraseological combinations do not have free meanings at all and exist in the language only as part of phraseological units. For example, the words downcast, kromeshny in modern Russian function only as part of phraseological combinations: downcast gaze, downcast eyes, pitch hell, pitch darkness.
These kinds of phrases, in which a word is used in a non-free, phraseologically related meaning, are called phraseological combinations.
The semantics of a phraseological unit largely depends on its structural organization. Some phraseological units are formed according to the phrase pattern: rack your brains, while others are formed according to the sentence pattern: hands are itching (whose?), the sky seems like a sheepskin (to whom?). Phraseologisms of the first group have the greatest functional-semantic similarity with the word.
Phraseologisms formed according to the model of a non-predicative phrase can be unambiguous and polysemantic, capable of entering into synonymous and antonymic relationships, united into thematic series based on semantic community, etc.
The overwhelming majority of phraseological units are unambiguous. The development of polysemy is hampered by the fact that phraseological units are often formed as a result of a metaphorical rethinking of free phrases of the same composition. As a result of repeated metaphorization of the same free phrase, polysemantic phraseological units appear that have only metaphorical meanings. For example, the phraseological unit wag the tail means:
- “to be cunning, to be cunning”; “You, brother, excuse me, I’m a taiga man, I’m straight, I don’t know how to be cunning, I don’t know how to wag my tail” (Yu.M. Shestakov);
- “hesitate in choosing a solution, avoid a direct answer”: “Speak up! Don’t wag your tail... saddlebag” (M.E. Sltykov-Shchedrin);
- (before whom?) “to achieve someone’s favor through flattery and servility.” “Because of one’s personal, one might say, family calculations, wagging one’s tail in front of the factory owner...” (D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak).
Polysemy is most typical for verbal and adverbial phrases, as they are the most common, and to a lesser extent for nominal ones (adjectival, etc.).
Individual phraseological units are capable of combining opposite meanings. For example, the verb phrase spinning in my head can mean:
- “constantly in consciousness, agitating the mind.” “A chaotic dream was spinning in my head, which at night was interrupted several times by awakenings” (M.A. Bulgakov);
- “I don’t remember at all”: “It seems so easy to remember, it keeps spinning in my head, spinning painfully close, but I don’t know what exactly. There’s no way to grab it” (V. Garm).
Antonymic relations in phraseology are less developed than synonymous ones. Only phraseological units enter into antonymic relationships that are correlative on some basis - qualitative, quantitative, temporal, spatial and belonging to the same category of objective reality as mutually exclusive concepts.
The antonymy of phraseological units is often supported by antonymic connections of their lexical synonyms: seven spans in the forehead (smart) - can’t invent gunpowder (stupid); blood with milk (ruddy) - not a drop of blood in the face (pale).
A special group includes antonymic phraseological units that partially coincide in composition, but have components that are opposed in meaning: with a heavy heart - with a light heart. Components that give such phraseological units the opposite meaning are often lexical antonyms. But they can receive the opposite meaning only as part of phraseological units (face - back).
The most striking semantic feature of phraseological units is their ability to enter into synonymous connections and relationships with each other: to lead by the nose, fool one’s head - to act dishonestly, to deceive someone.
Phraseological synonymy is rich and varied. There are about 800 synonymic series in the Russian language. By phraseological synonyms we have agreed to understand phraseological units with an extremely close meaning, correlative, as a rule, with one part of speech, and having similar or identical compatibility.
Phraseological synonyms can be single-structural, multi-structural and similar-structural. Single-structural synonyms are formed according to the same model: Kolomenskaya verst and fire tower - according to the “noun” model. in them p. + adj.” Synonyms with different structures are built according to different models: headlong, floundering, with eyes closed. In similar structural synonyms, the grammatically dominant component of the phraseological unit is expressed by one part of speech, and all the rest are differently formed: to hang one’s head, to lose heart - to become despondent, to despair.”
Phraseologisms included in the synonymous series may differ in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, and sometimes all these features at the same time.
Due to polysemy, phraseological units can have synonymous connections in each meaning. In the Russian language, there are extensive synonymous series with general meanings: “to reprimand in harsh terms”: give heat, set a steam, remove shavings, soap your hair, give a light.
Many synonymous series are semantically close. Thus, phraseological synonyms for not taking an extra step, not to lift a finger (not to make the slightest effort) intersect with two other synonymous rows: to kick the bucket, to play the fool, to spit at the ceiling (indulge in idleness, laziness) and to trim the pavement, to polish the boulevards, elephants loiter (walk, loiter idle).
Phraseological synonymy not only approaches lexical synonymy, but also differs from it. Phraseologisms are much poorer than words in lexico-grammatical terms. Thus, among phraseological units there is no actual pronominal category; in rare cases, phraseological units are correlated with the full forms of adjectives. At the same time, phraseological synonyms often convey aspects of reality that cannot be expressed by lexical synonymy. For example, phraseological units of the synonymous series, the wind whistles in his pockets (who?), an empty pocket (who?), not a penny to his name (who?) can only be interpreted with a detailed description “no one has any money at all, there is no money at all” - signs of wealth."
Phraseological synonyms differ from lexical synonyms in a stylistic sense: phraseological units are distinguished by greater stylistic homogeneity than words of free use. This is explained by the fact that phraseological units are mainly characterized by emotional and expressive connotations.
*The main property of a phraseological unit (PU) as a component of a language system is, first of all, the property of compatibility with other units.
A phraseological unit can have a single, narrow or wide combinability, depending on the semantics of the verb being characterized. The phraseological unit in all eyes (in both eyes, in both eyes) is combined with verbs of visual perception of the semantic category of action, which indicates its narrow lexical-semantic compatibility: Various monovalent, divalent, trivalent, etc. Phrases are characterized only in relation to the number of joining verbs, i.e. only the quantitative aspect of valence is taken into account. The qualitative side of valency, determined by the nature of the semantic relationships between combining units, is not revealed with this approach, which necessitates further searches in the field of “power” capabilities of phraseological units. In addition, in some cases in a scientific linguistic text it is possible to use only one of two terms, which indicates a distinction between their use and functions: valency capabilities / combinability abilities, ability to combine, verbal valence (but not compatibility). The use of the term “valence” is recommended to avoid double meaning and ambiguity: compatibility, as we have found out, is divided into several types according to different criteria. “Valence” more successfully meets the requirements for terms, and helps to avoid ambiguity and achieve naming accuracy - in the context of our work - “verbal valence of a phraseological unit.”
*The main part of phraseological resources of the Russian language consists of phraseological units of original Russian origin. Among the phraseological units of a colloquial nature there are a significant number of those, the source of which is professional speech, for example: sharpen the lasses, without a hitch (from the professional speech of carpenters), leave the stage, play the first violin (from the speech of actors, musicians).
A few phraseological units came into the literary language from slang, for example, the phrase "rubbing glasses" is a cheating expression.
In the sphere of everyday and colloquial speech, phrases have constantly arisen and are emerging in which various historical events and customs of the Russian people find social assessment. For example, the phraseological unit put (or shelved) is associated with the name of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (17th century), by whose order a petition box was installed in front of the palace in Kolomenskoye, but such an innovation did not eliminate red tape, and the people reflected this fact accordingly: shelving means delaying consideration of the issue for an indefinite period.
In addition to phraseological units, the origin of which is associated with colloquial speech, there is a significant number of phraseological units of book origin, both Russian and borrowed. Among them there are very old ones, borrowed from liturgical books, for example: seek and you will find, holy of holies, fiend of hell, in the image and likeness, etc.
The phraseology of the Russian language is being actively replenished with catchphrases of literary origin. For example, the sword of Damocles, the Gordian knot, the Procrustean bed - from ancient mythology; the expression from a beautiful distance belongs to N.V. Gogol; things of bygone days.
In addition to native Russian phraseological units, there are phraseological units of foreign language origin. These are usually tracings from foreign phraseological units, for example: to remain silent (from Latin).
*The visual and expressive capabilities of Russian phraseology are difficult to overestimate. Linguists have written and are writing a lot about the stylistic possibilities of phraseological units. But linguistic material, which is so attractive to any writer or publicist, is not so easy to make serve effectively and with dignity. The stylistic functioning of idiomatic expressions has one extremely important feature, which the outstanding linguist, Professor B. L. Larin once wrote about. “As the light of the morning is reflected in a drop of dew,” so, according to the scientist, phraseological units reflect not only the historically established views of the people, but also the social system, the ideology of the era that brings them to life.
In 1955, the collection “Winged Words” by N.S. was published. Ashukin and M.G. Ashukina (3rd ed. M., 1966). The book contains a large number of literary quotes and figurative expressions, arranged in alphabetical order. The presence of an alphabetical index at the end of the book allows you to use it as a reference book.
Russian phraseology is presented with great completeness in the book published in 1967, edited by A.I. Molotkov “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, containing over 4000 dictionary entries (3rd ed. 1978; 4th ed. 1986). Phraseologisms are given with possible variants of components, an interpretation of the meaning is given and the forms of use in speech are indicated. Each meaning is illustrated with quotes from fiction. In some cases, etymological information is provided.
In 1975, the dictionary-reference book “Stable verbal-nominal phrases of the Russian language” by V.M. Deribas. This manual contains over 5,000 set phrases, arranged according to their two components (verb - noun). In 1980, the “School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published by V.P. Zhukov, containing about 2000 of the most common phraseological units found in literature and oral speech. In 1997, the “Dictionary of Periphrases of the Russian Language (based on newspaper journalism)” (A.B. Novikov) was published, which gives phrases such as in an Adam’s suit (naked), blue helmets (UN armed forces), black gold (oil) and etc.
Phraseology in the broad sense of the term also includes proverbs and sayings. The most complete collection of Russian proverbs is the collection “Proverbs of the Russian People” by V.I. Dahl, published in 1861-1862. (reissued 1957). In 1966, V.P.’s “Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings” was published. Zhukov (3rd ed. M., 1967), containing about 1000 proverbs and sayings, arranged in alphabetical order by the first word. In 1981, the “Dictionary-Reference Book of Russian Phraseology” was published by R.I. Yarantsev (2nd ed. M., 1985), which included about 800 phraseological units.
This page presents phraseological units of various kinds, everything is described in detail and laid out on shelves so that everything is convenient. Otherwise they are called phraseological units. These are phrases that, in terms of the composition of their words, do not correspond to the true words, but at the same time are consistent in meaning. Proverbs and sayings don't count :-)
As you have already noticed, they are sorted into groups. The most popular of them relate to water, body parts (nose, tongue, etc.) and bread. And also about animals and food. So, let's go.
Phraseologisms with the word “water” and related ones
Storm in a teacup– strong excitement or irritability over trifles.
Written on the water with a pitchfork– purely theoretically; that is, it is unknown what will happen next.
Carry water in a sieve- waste time in vain, idle.
Take water into your mouth- remain silent, as if your mouth was really full of water.
Bring to clean water- to reveal the truth, expose, find out the true face.
Come out dry from water- go unpunished, without consequences.
Drive the wave– provoke aggression, make unnecessary noise.
Money is like water– they leak very quickly, and getting them back is not so easy.
To stay afloat– continue to develop despite difficulties and conduct business successfully.
Wait by the sea for weather- expect pleasant events that are unlikely to happen.
Life abounds– when life is full of bright events, does not stand still.
Like looking into the water– he predicted, as if he knew in advance. By analogy with fortune telling by water.
How he sank into the water- disappeared, disappeared without a trace.
Down in the mouth- about sadness, sadness.
Like water through your fingers- about what goes away quickly and unnoticed. Usually in pursuit.
As two drops of water– very similar.
How to give something to drink- very simple; definitely, definitely.
Like water off a duck's back– it doesn’t matter. Similar to phraseology - Come out dry from water.
Out of the blue- about a sharply approaching event. Unexpectedly, suddenly, out of nowhere.
Sink into oblivion- disappear forever, fall into oblivion.
Swim in gold– about very rich people.
The ice has broken- about the beginning of a business.
Pour water– show negativity, provoke.
Much water has passed under the bridge– a lot of time has passed.
Reckless– about a brave man who doesn’t care about anything.
Darker than a cloud- about excessive anger.
Muddy the waters- to confuse, confuse.
On top of the wave- be in favorable conditions.
Don't spill the water- about strong, inseparable friendship.
Pour from empty to empty
To go with the flow– act passively, submitting to the prevailing circumstances.
Underwater rocks– about any hidden danger, trick, obstacle.
After the rain on Thursday- never, or not at all soon.
Last straw- about an event in which a person’s patience runs out.
Pass fire, water and copper pipes- go through difficult tests, difficult situations.
A dime a dozen- a lot, a lot.
Don't drink water from your face– to love a person not for his appearance, but for his inner qualities.
Get it from the bottom of the sea- solve any problem without looking at any difficulties.
Hide the ends in water- hide traces of the crime.
Quieter than water, below the grass- about quiet, modest behavior.
Pound water in a mortar- engage in useless work.
Wash your hands– to evade participation or responsibility in any matter.
Clean water- about something obvious, without any doubt.
Phraseologisms with the word “nose” and other parts of the body
Mutter under your breath– grumble, speak indistinctly.
hang your nose- to become despondent, to become upset.
Lead by the nose- to deceive, to tell a lie.
Chin up!- a command not to be discouraged, not to be upset.
Turn up one's nose- to put oneself above others, to put on airs, to imagine oneself to be in charge.
Nick down- remember it completely.
Nodding off- doze off with your head hanging low.
Wrinkle your nose- reflect on a difficult task.
On the nose- about an event that should happen in the near future.
Can't see beyond your nose- limit yourself to yourself, not notice what is happening around you.
Nose to nose or Face to face– very close, on the contrary, very close.
Keep your nose to the wind– be aware of all events, make the right decision.
Stay with your nose or Leave with your nose- do without what you were counting on.
Right under your nose- Very close.
With a gulkin nose- about a pigeon that has a small nose, that is, very little.
Poking your nose into none of your business- about excessive curiosity.
Poking your nose- that is, until you poke your nose, he won’t see it himself.
Wipe your nose– to prove one’s superiority, to defeat someone.
bury your nose- to become completely immersed in something.
Talk through your teeth- that is, speak indistinctly, barely opening your mouth.
Charm your teeth- divert attention from the essence of the conversation.
Know by heart- that is, to know deeply and firmly.
Bare your teeth or Show teeth- snap, get angry; mock.
Too tough- not possible.
Not even a kick- do nothing, know nothing.
Put your teeth on the shelf- to starve, to be bored, to lack something.
Grit your teeth- go into battle without despair. Restrain yourself without showing your weakness.
Keep your mouth shut- be silent, don’t say a word.
Long tongue- about a person who loves to talk a lot.
Bite your tongue- refrain from words.
Loosen your tongue- talk too much without refraining.
Tongue swallow- to remain silent, having no desire to speak.
Be careful– be careful to avoid an emergency.
Keep your ears on top- be careful, careful, do not trust anyone.
For the eyes and ears- about giving too much time to do something.
You can't see your ears- about an item that will never be obtained.
Blush up to your ears- be very ashamed, embarrassed.
Hang your ears– listen with excessive enthusiasm, trust everything.
Eyes popped out of my head- about sincere surprise, amazement.
Eyes lit up- to passionately want something.
Shoot with eyes- look expressively, flirtatiously at someone.
Like an eyesore- to disturb someone, to bother someone.
Pull the wool over someone's eyes- create a false, overly pleasant impression of yourself. Boast.
From point of view– about someone’s opinion, judgment on a particular topic.
Look through your fingers– look attentively at the problem, do not be picky.
Ogle- to attract attention, to suck up.
You can't put it in your mouth– about food prepared tastelessly.
Lip no fool- about a person who knows how to choose something to his taste.
Pout lips- make a dissatisfied face, be offended.
Roll out your lip- want a lot with minimal opportunities.
With your mouth open- listen attentively; be surprised.
Out of my head- about forgetfulness, inattention.
Have a head on your shoulders- be smart, quick-witted.
Puzzle over- think intensely, intensely, trying to understand something.
Fool your head- to deceive, fool, confuse.
From head to toes- completely, at full height.
Turn it upside down- to give the opposite meaning to something, to distort.
Headlong- very fast.
Hit face in the dirt- to disgrace yourself, to disgrace yourself in front of someone.
Be at hand- about something accessible, close.
Keep yourself in control- maintain composure, be restrained.
As if taken off by hand– about quickly passing pain, illness.
Bite your elbows- regret what you did, with the impossibility of going back.
Working hard- perform work diligently, without interruptions.
Hand in hand– about a joint, agreed upon deal or friendship.
Just a stone's throw– about an object that is nearby, very close.
Grab with both hands- take on any task with pleasure.
Skillful fingers- about a talented person who skillfully copes with any job.
Get off on the wrong foot- wake up without a mood.
Wipe your feet (on someone)– to cause harm, to get on one’s nerves, to annoy.
Doing your feet- go, move.
Stepping on your toes- to catch up with someone or pursue someone, hanging on him.
Feet to hands- do something immediately.
The devil himself will break his leg- about disorder, chaos in business or anywhere.
Get knocked off your feet- to be very tired in some activity or path.
Phraseologisms with the word “bread”
There is bread for free- do not bring any benefit.
And then the bread- about having at least something rather than nothing at all.
On your own bread– live on your own salary, without the opportunity of anyone else.
Not by bread alone– about a person who lives not only materially, but also spiritually.
Beating bread– deprive the opportunity to earn money by taking away work.
Subsist from bread to kvass (to water)- live in poverty, starve.
Sit down on bread and water– eat the cheapest food, save on food.
Daily bread– about what is necessary for human life, his existence.
Bread and salt- a dear greeting to guests, an invitation to the table.
Meal'n'Real!– a cry about presenting vital priorities.
Don't feed me bread– about a very busy or rich person who is not hungry.
Phraseologisms on the topic of cuisine and food
Free cheese- bait that lures into a trap.
Boil in your own juice- live your life. Or help yourself without the help of others.
Not worth a damn- about something that is insignificant and not worth any costs.
Donut hole- about something empty, without any content.
To slurp jelly seven miles away- to go somewhere without special need.
Brew the porridge- create a problem, they say, you started it yourself - solve it yourself.
And you can’t lure me with a roll- about someone who cannot be forced to change his mind.
Like chickens in cabbage soup- about getting into unexpected trouble. Kur is “rooster” in Old Russian.
Like clockwork– very simple, without difficulties.
Live like a lord– about a profitable, comfortable life.
You can't cook porridge- about joint action with someone with whom there will be no benefit.
Milk rivers, jelly banks– about a fabulous, fully prosperous life.
Not at ease- feel awkward. In an uncomfortable situation.
Slurping unsalted- not getting what they expected. To no avail.
Not for any reason- analogue of phraseological unit And you can’t lure me with a roll.
Neither fish nor fowl- about an ordinary person who does not have anything bright or expressive.
Cut off slice– about a person living independently, independent of others.
Professor of sour cabbage soup- about a person talking about things about which he himself does not really know.
Easier than steamed turnips– it couldn’t be simpler, or very simple.
To fix the mess- solve complex, neglected problems.
The fish rots from the head– if the government is bad, then the subordinates will become the same.
Hot on the side- about someone or something unnecessary, optional, secondary.
Seventh water on jelly– about distant relatives who are difficult to identify.
Eat the dog- about any business with a rich amount of experience.
Grated kalach– about a person with rich life experience who does not get lost in difficult situations.
Horseradish is not sweeter than radish- about an insignificant exchange for something that is not better.
Worse than bitter radish- about something completely unbearable, intolerable.
Nonsense on vegetable oil- about something that doesn’t deserve any attention. Absurdity.
After an hour, a teaspoon– about inactive, unproductive work.
Phraseologisms with animals
Chasing two birds with one stone- trying to do two things at the same time.
To make mountains out of molehills- greatly exaggerate.
Teasing the geese- to irritate someone, to cause anger.
No brainer (Goat knows)- about something very clear, obvious.
And the wolves are fed, and the sheep are safe- about a situation in which both here and there are good.
Look for tails– look for sources for cooperation in any enterprise.
Like a cat and a dog– living together with constant swearing.
Like a chicken paw- to do something carelessly, sloppily, crookedly.
Like chicken and egg- about any item that is difficult to part with.
Like a mouse on a grain- sulk, express dissatisfaction, resentment.
When the cancer on the mountain whistles- never, or not at all soon.
Cats scratch at my soul– about a sad, difficult state or mood.
Crocodile tears– crying for no reason, compassion for a non-existent sign.
Chickens laugh- stupid, ridiculous, absurd, funny.
Chickens don't peck- about a person having a lot of money.
The lion's share- a big advantage in favor of something. The biggest part.
Martyshkin's work- a useless process of work, wasted effort.
The bear stepped on my ear– about a person without an ear for music.
Bearish angle- a provincial, remote, deaf place. Far from civilization.
Disservice- help that brings more evil than good.
Cast pearls before swine- to conduct intelligent conversations in front of fools who have little understanding.
You can't get there on a crooked goat- about a person who is difficult to approach.
On a bird's license- not have legal grounds or security for anything.
Not for horse feed (oats)– about efforts that do not produce the expected results.
Don't sew the mare's tail– completely unnecessary, out of place.
I'll show you where crayfish spend the winter- prediction of revenge, undesirable position.
Let the red rooster go- commit arson, start a fire.
Bird's-eye– from a great height, giving an overview of a large space.
Put the pig down- to do a mischief, to do something unpleasant.
Watch the ram at the new gate- to look at something with a stupid expression.
Dog cold– severe cold causing discomfort.
Counting crows- yawn, be inattentive to something.
A dark horse- an incomprehensible, little-known person.
Pull the cat's tail– delay the matter, work very slowly.
Kill two birds with one stone- solve two problems at the same time.
Even if a wolf howls– about any situation without the possibility of changing it for the better.
The black cat ran- break off friendly relations, quarrel.
Phraseologisms with objects, other phraseological units
Lost hour- for a long time.
Beat your head- do simple, not so important things.
Abandon to fate– leave somewhere without helping or showing interest.
Put a spoke in wheel- to interfere, to deliberately disturb someone.
go around the mountain- to accomplish some great deed.
Keep in line- treat someone strictly, for the good of your will.
Keep your pocket wider– about too high and unrealistic hopes and expectations.
From dirt to Kings- suddenly and dramatically achieve amazing success.
Out of the ordinary– different from everything ordinary, special.
Reinvent the wheel– try to make something from an already proven, reliable means.
From time immemorial- a long time ago, a very long time ago.
A stone has fallen from my soul (from my heart)- a feeling of relief when getting rid of something oppressive.
Oil painting- everything came together well and beautifully.
Roll a barrel- behave aggressively towards someone.
Mom don't worry- about something extraordinary, going beyond the ordinary understanding of things.
Exchange an awl for soap It’s a pointless thing to exchange one useless thing for another.
Cover yourself with a copper basin– suddenly and abruptly disappear, deteriorate; die.
Found a scythe on a stone– faced with an irreconcilable contradiction of opinions and interests.
Does not burn– not so important, not urgent.
Not far away– nearby, not too distant in time or space.
I don't dare- not simple, not stupid.
It is too expensive– about the discrepancy between someone’s income and financial capabilities.
From our table to yours– about the transfer of any property to another person.
Shelve- quit something for an indefinite period of time.
Go too far- to be overly zealous in something.
The song is sung- the end has come for someone or something.
On the shoulder- about the ability to cope with something.
Essentially– naturally, of course.
Add fuel to the fire– deliberately aggravate the conflict, provoke.
The train left- time has passed to do something.
One, two - and I miscalculated- about something in small quantities that is easy to count.
Born in a shirt- about a very lucky man who miraculously escaped tragedy.
Make ends meet- have difficulty coping with financial difficulties.
Move a mountain- a lot to do.
Sit on pins and needles- to be impatient, waiting, wanting to achieve something.
At least henna– about the indifference of a person who doesn’t care about someone else’s misfortune.
“A phraseological unit is a stable figure of speech, a phrase, an expression, the meaning of which does not consist of the concepts of its constituent words.”
In one of the most widespread languages on the planet - Russian, there are a huge number of such examples of phraseological units. If you add expressions that were borrowed from foreign languages, then you might think that all we do is talk using phraseological units.
"Throw down the gauntlet"
"Beat but listen"
"Beat the Key"
"Through the Sleeves"
"Leave it with your nose"
- A phraseological unit is the root of a concept, the basis, a key phrase, a complete turn of speech, a complete thought.
- The word "Phrase" was borrowed from the Greek language "phrasis", which is translated into Russian as "expression".
- The concept of “Phrase” served as the name of the science of language - phraseology, part of linguistics.
The term "Phraseology" consists of two ancient Greek words "phrasis" - "expression" and "logos" - "concept". This is the science that studies stable figures of speech.
Phraseologism can be divided into several types:
Phraseological expressionsPhraseological unities
Phraseological combinations
Phraseological adjunctions (idioms)
Phraseological expressions, are a special figure of speech, which all consist of words with a free meaning. Their peculiarity is their use as ready-made speech patterns.
Example Phraseological expressions aphorisms may serve: " knowledge is power", proverbs:" when the cancer on the mountain whistles", "Where there is a horse with a hoof, there is a crayfish with a claw", as well as common cliches used in everyday colloquial speech:" Good afternoon", "see you again", "best wishes".
Phraseological unities, are a figure of speech in which each term has its own special meaning, but when connected they take on a figurative meaning.
"Cast a fishing rod"
"Getting online"
"To go with the flow"
Phraseological combinations are a figure of speech in which words have a non-free (used only in a specific phrase) or free meaning. Combinations differ from unity and adhesions in that the words included in the expression can be replaced.
"Lust for Glory"
"Revenge"
"Lust for Money"
"Burn with Hate"
"Burn with Love"
"Burn with shame"
A phrase can be not only a complete sentence, a thought, but also a figure of speech, a musical passage, and in singing it can be a musical figure that can be sung without taking a breath.
Phraseological adhesions or as they are also called, idioms, are an unchangeable and untranslatable expression peculiar only to a given language. The term idiom was borrowed from the Greek language “idioma” and is translated as “a peculiar phrase”.
"Neither fish nor fowl"
"Seven spans in the forehead"
"Don't sew a tail on a mare"
- In a phrase they call beautiful, bright, loud speech not sincere, hypocritical, not corresponding to the content.
- Fraser- this is a narcissistic person who utters meaningless, beautiful speeches. A synonym for the term “Fraser” can be the word windbag, talker.
- Fraserism, Phraseology- this is an addiction to meaningless, loud, beautiful speech, essentially idle talk.
Example of Fraserism in Literature
In the play "The Cherry Orchard" by Chekhov, you can pay attention to the monologue of a certain Gaev, which he addresses to the closet: " Dear, dear closet! I greet your existence, which for more than a hundred years has been directed exclusively towards the ideals of justice and goodness, your silent call, which forced us to work fruitfully, has not weakened for many hundred years, maintaining, despite sorrows, faith in a better future, cheerfulness and education we have social consciousness and ideals of goodness".
Phraseologisms in video pictures
An aphorism is a phrase that is known to everyone and therefore is not created anew in speech, but is retrieved from memory.
Motto - a short saying, usually expressing the guiding idea of behavior or activity (Our motto is forward!).
Idiomatic - inherent only to a given language, peculiar.
Canonical - accepted as a model, firmly established.
A cliché is a common speech pattern, a cliche.
A slogan is an appeal that succinctly expresses a political idea or demand (for example, the slogan of the era of socialism: The Party is the mind, honor and conscience of our era).
Proverb is a linguistic cliche (phraseologism, proverb, saying, precedent statement).
An appeal is an appeal that in a laconic form expresses a guiding idea, a political demand, a slogan ( All for the elections!).
A prototype situation is a situation that corresponds to the literal meaning of a phraseological unit.
Syntactic phraseological unit is a non-standard, specific construction, the structural properties and semantics of which go beyond regular syntactic connections and patterns (for example: I wish I could come in the summer!); function and pronominal words, particles and interjections do not function according to the current syntactic rules. Unlike a lexical phraseological unit, a syntactic phraseological unit is not reproduced, but constructed.
Phraseologism is a phrase whose general meaning is not derived from the independent meanings of each word included in it ( roll down an inclined plane - to decline morally). The main features of a phraseological unit are stability and reproducibility.
The standard is a sample.
This lecture is devoted to consideration of the problems of paremia, i.e., the features of the semantics and functioning of linguistic clichés of different types and taking into account these features when teaching ICC. We call a cliche any ready-made speech form, the criterion for identifying which is the regularity of its appearance in certain recurring speech situations. Let's focus our attention on phraseological units - units that are especially relevant when teaching ICC.
The concept of phraseology
In Russian, as in a number of other languages, words are combined with each other to form phrases. Some of them are free, others are not free. Free combinations of words are constantly formed during speech: the speaker selects words that are necessary in meaning based on knowledge of their meaning and grammatically builds combinations from them in accordance with the intent and structure of the utterance: drink tea, write with a pen, take part in a play, organize a conference and so on.
Each word in such free combinations of words retains its independent meaning and performs a specific syntactic function. Such combinations are created in the process of speech to achieve a communicative goal (to inform, ask, etc.) in accordance with personal perception, impression in a certain situation. Such combinations are not stored in memory: circumstances change and new free combinations arise.
There are also related combinations in the language, for example, cross someone's path prevent you from achieving your goal: I know why he behaves this way. Once I crossed his path - I won a competition for the position for which he applied. Independent meaning of component words in a phrase cross the road weakened, since the nominative properties of words have disappeared, so the meaning of the entire phrase is no longer connected with the semantics of each word separately. Lexically, such a combination is indivisible and is reproduced in speech as a ready-made speech unit. The role of the phrase as a whole is considered syntactically, and not each word separately. Such semantically indivisible phrases, which are characterized by constancy of integral meaning, are called phraseological units of language (or phraseological units, phraseological units).
The main semantic feature of a phraseological unit is semantic unity, cohesion, the essence of which is that the general meaning of a phraseological unit is not derived from the independent meanings of each word included in it (cf., for example, phraseological units small fry- about an insignificant person from the point of view of social status, shot sparrow- about an experienced, experienced person, fool someone's head- not allowing you to concentrate on the main thing, the main thing, to confuse, to fool someone).
The meaning of phraseological units is specific. Firstly, the meaning of a phraseological unit (PU) is always richer than the meaning of a synonymous word (or words). It is never equivalent to the volume of meaning of the synonym word. So, kick your ass- this is not just idleness, but doing trifles; put a spoke in wheel- not only interfere or impede, but do it while someone is doing something, as if in the course of it; wash dirty linen in public- this is when someone to whom they were confidentially told gossips or divulges other people’s secrets. This means that the meaning of phraseological units is always more detailed than the meaning of words.
Secondly, the meaning of most phraseological units is situational. This feature of phraseological units requires not only knowledge of their meaning, but also the situations in which they can be used. Yes, in FE turn up one's nose, in addition to the meaning of putting on airs, it contains information that previously the speaker and the one in question were on equal terms, and now the latter is boasting of his higher social or material position.
The next feature of phraseological units is the evaluative nature of the meaning. Most phraseological units, thanks to the image that underlies them, not only denote any fragment of reality, but also express the positive or negative opinion of the speaker about what is denoted. At the same time, the speaker evaluates whether it is good or bad, kind or evil, useful or harmful. For example, phraseology turn up one's nose, along with the above content, expresses the negative opinion of the person using this phrase: self-importance is a bad human trait.
The images on the basis of which phraseological units are formed can themselves provide an assessment of the signified. So, put a spoke in someone's wheels - bad, but give a green light - Fine.
Most phraseological units, in addition to the speaker’s evaluative attitude, also express an emotional attitude. It is also suggested by the image. When they say: We are forced to work until exhaustion, then they describe and evaluate only the designated situation. But if they say: They're squeezing all the juice out of us, then they also count on the sympathy and empathy of the listener, since in the meaning of a phraseological unit there is also connotation - emotional disapproval of what is denoted (cf. in the statement You're leading me by the nose the speaker accuses the interlocutor of disdainful attitude towards him).
From the above examples it is clear that phraseological units are a kind of microtexts in which, in addition to a figurative description of the actual fragment of reality being designated, there are also connotations (connotations) that express the speaker’s evaluative or emotional attitude to the signified. The addition of these meanings creates the effect of expressiveness or expressiveness of phraseological units.
Phraseologism has a number of significant features:
1) stability,
2) reproducibility,
3) integrity of meaning,
4) separate design.
Stability (constancy, stability) and reproducibility are the regular repeatability of phraseological units in finished form. Phrase phrases are reproduced and not constructed anew in speech each time, depending on the communicative situation.
The integrity of the meaning of a phraseological unit is due to the fact that the meaning of a phraseological unit is difficult or impossible to derive from the meaning of its constituent parts. The integrity of the meaning of a phraseological unit is achieved by complete or partial rethinking of the components. As a result, they tend to differ in meaning from the corresponding freely used words. So, for example, it is impossible to phraseologically break into pieces try, exhaustingly, to do everything possible to interpret by interpreting the meanings of words break, cake(cf. count crows, hold a stone in your bosom, seven spans in your forehead, two steps away).
A separate structure is an important feature that characterizes the appearance of a phraseological unit (plane of expression). All phraseological units have a separate structure, that is, they are constructed according to the model of various combinations of words.
Following V.V. Vinogradov, based on the criterion of syntactic and semantic indecomposability of a word combination, freedom/non-freedom of the words included in it, it is customary to distinguish several types of phraseological units - phraseological adhesions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.
F Raseological adhesions
Phraseological fusions are lexically indivisible phrases, the meanings of which are not determined by the meaning of the individual words included in them (for example, kick your ass sit back, from the bay-floundering thoughtlessly Sodom and Gomorrah turmoil, noise, carelessly carelessly, how to give something to drink certainly. The meaning of these phrases is not motivated by the meaning of the constituent elements. The main feature of phraseological fusions is its indivisibility, absolute semantic cohesion, in which the meaning of the whole phrase cannot be deduced from the meaning of its constituent words. (See also topsy-turvy, hand on heart, extremely bad, from young to old, without hesitation, in broad daylight, on one’s mind, to tell a joke, to be amazed).
F raseological unities
Phraseological units are lexical units, the general meaning of which is to some extent motivated by the figurative meaning of the words that make up the given phrase. For example, the general meaning of such unities as splurge, go with the flow, keep a stone in your bosom, go into your shell, suck blood and milk out of your finger etc. depends on the meaning of individual elements that make up the figurative “core” of the entire turnover. Unlike adhesions, the imagery of which is extinct, already unmotivated and completely independent of the meaning of the constituent elements, phraseological unities “have the property of potential imagery.” This allows some scientists to call phrases of this type metaphorical combinations. In contrast to fusions, parts of phraseological units can be separated from each other by inserting some words: pour water into (your, my, your) mill;
Phraseological combinations − such stable phrases, the overall meaning of which completely depends on the meaning of the constituent words. Words as part of a phraseological combination retain relative semantic independence, but are not free and manifest their meaning only in combination with a certain, closed circle of words, for example: word tearfully can only be combined with words ask, beg. Consequently, one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be more stable and even constant, the other - variable. The meaning of constant words (components) is phraseologically related.
For example: in combinations burn with shame And melancholy takes over will be permanent burn out And beret, since these words will turn out to be the main (core) elements in other phraseological combinations: burn out - from shame, from disgrace, from disgrace; burn out- from love; burn out- from impatience, envy; beret- frustration, anger; takes - fear, horror; beret- laughter. The use of other components is impossible (cf.: *burn with joy, *takes smile).
The meanings of such words are phraseologically related in the system of these phrases, that is, they are realized only with a certain range of words. Despite the phraseological closedness of phrases of this type, even lexically non-free components can be (without prejudice to the general phraseological meaning) replaced by a synonym (cf.: lower your head - lower your head; sit in a puddle - sit in a galosh; frown - frown). This creates conditions for the emergence of phraseological unities, and often synonyms. Phraseological units have idiomatic semantics, reproducibility, syntactic articulation, which does not prevent them from performing functions in a phrase similar to the functions of individual word forms; in their nominative nature, phraseological units are almost equal to the word.
Syntactic phraseological units
Currently, it is also customary to distinguish a special group of phraseological units called syntactic phraseological units. These are “non-standard, specific constructions, the structural properties and semantics of which go beyond the framework of regular syntactic connections and patterns. For example: I wish I could come in the summer!; What a relaxing time there!; So that when he’s late!”. “Russian Grammar” calls syntactic phraseological units “such constructions in which the connections and relationships of components from the point of view of living grammatical rules turn out to be inexplicable.” Syntactic phraseological units in Russian grammar include sentences in which “word forms are associated with each other idiomatically” and where “functional and pronominal words, particles and interjections do not function according to the current syntactic rules.” A syntactic phraseological unit differs from a lexical one in that it is “not reproduced, but constructed.” Syntactic and lexical phraseological units are distinguished, as a rule, by stylistic and emotional expressiveness.
Syntactic phraseological units, unlike lexical ones, are not among the nominative means of language; they play a somewhat smaller role in the storage and transmission of cultural information, but consideration of these units in the sociocultural aspect allows us to identify the characteristic features of the reflection in the language of the specifics of national perception and categorization of surrounding reality. A.V. Velichko rightly points out: “When considering syntactic phraseological units (SPs) in the sociocultural aspect, their dual nature can be traced. On the one hand, SF reflect in their semantics the properties of the human personality, a person beyond his nationality. On the other hand, SF represent specific Russian constructions, since they reflect the peculiarities of the Russian national mentality, the nature of the awareness of the real world by the Russian person. This explains, for example, the extreme detail of the assessment, represented by a large number of evaluative syntactic phraseological units (These are flowers! Roses are flowers/ Flowers for all flowers! Why not flowers! Flowers for me too!)”.
Phraseology and national image of the world
Since the peculiarity of a phraseological unit is that its meaning is not reducible to the sum of the meanings of its constituent units, it is obvious that phraseological units present special difficulties for foreigners studying the Russian language. For example, in the Korean language there is a phraseological expression eat kuksu. Even knowing what it is kuksu, you can’t guess that we are talking about a wedding. The fact is that the etymology of this expression is associated with the ancient Korean custom of eating guksu at a wedding. Therefore, the question “When will we eat kuksu?” should be understood as “When will you get married?”
Phraseologisms arise on the basis of a prototype situation, that is, a situation corresponding to the literal meaning of the phraseological unit. Prototypes reflect national (in our case, Russian) culture, since “genetically free phrases describe certain customs, traditions, details of life and culture, historical events and much more.” (For example, prototypes of phraseological units can tell about typical Russian flora: from a forest and from a pine tree, some into the forest, some for firewood, as in a dark forest). A certain content is assigned to a situation - the result of rethinking a given situation in a given specific cultural code.
This situation is symbolic in nature, because it stands out and is fixed in the collective memory. Its rethinking is born on the basis of some stereotypes, standards, myths, which are the implementation of the cultural concepts of a given society. Due to the fact that the stereotypes and standards to which the images that form phraseological units are oriented have a certain value, any phraseological unit that fits into the system of the cultural code of a given community acquires an evaluative meaning. It automatically accepts a general assessment of the concept on the basis (or within the framework) of which a given phraseological unit is formed.
The patterns of rethinking the prototype situation arise within a certain area, formed on the basis of religious, mythological, ideological views. Therefore, for example, in languages common in the area of Christian civilization, common conceptual metaphors are found that have their origins in customs, traditions and cultural attitudes common to the Slavic peoples. However, each linguistic and cultural ethnic community has its own, nationally specific rethinking.
One of the significant oppositions for Slavic (including Russian) culture is the opposition between top and bottom. In mythological (and later religious) consciousness, the top was associated with the location of the divine principle, the bottom was the location of hell, and the Underworld was the symbolic space of the Fall. In the XVII-early XIX centuries. There was a miniature depicting a sinner and a sinner being dragged downhill to hell by a demon. Based on these ideas, ascent, spiritual ascent was associated with approaching God, the divine principle, with moral improvement; moving an object down was associated with moral decline, immoral behavior. Thanks to these ideas, it is likely that the phrases roll down, roll down a slippery slope, decline in morals, fail out of shame, fall through the ground, fall in the eyes of someone, have gained stability and reproducibility in the Russian language.
The phrase “to stand in the way of someone”, to stand in the way of someone’s life, to interfere with someone’s achievement of a goal, to create obstacles in someone’s life is associated with the superstitious prohibition to cross the road for someone walking - otherwise he will not have good luck (same origin have phraseological units to cross/cross the road, cross/cross someone's road).
In general, a whole series of phraseological units and metaphors are based on the linguistic metaphors “life is movement”, “movement is development”, for example, to pave one’s way with one’s forehead persistently, persistently, at the cost of great effort to achieve success in life, to pave one’s way with one’s chest to achieve success, overcoming all obstacles, climb a mountain, achieve a high position in society, put someone on the road, help someone find their business and place in life, creating the necessary conditions, turn to the path of truth under the influence of someone, change their behavior for the better , go far ahead, change significantly, not advance one step at all, not at all; Wed also a start in life, on the path to success, to stand at a crossroads.
The image is highly productive due to the fact that in the everyday consciousness of Russians the perception of life as a path is fixed (cf. also He walked the path to the end, and in the Korean language - He walked the circle of life; I met many good and kind people on the way; cf. jargon advanced, slow down). In Russian culture, the image of the path is one of the central ones due to the richness of the semantic structure of the concept underlying it, which provides unlimited possibilities for a variety of metaphorical constructions when creating images.
Many phraseological units are, according to V.N. Telia, figuratively motivated secondary names that reveal associative connections, culturally significant frames and specific images of abstract concepts. Thus, using the example of the quoted author, we can describe the image of “conscience” in the national consciousness of Russians: “Conscience is a kind and at the same time punishing messenger of God in the soul, a “channel” of God’s control over the soul of a person who has his own voice - the voice of conscience, says - conscience has spoken, cleanses - a clear conscience, a bad conscience is sick, it torments, torments the subject, to act according to conscience means in a divine, fair way, and when there is no conscience, then the soul is open to spiritual permissiveness, etc. "All these connotations indicate that conscience in the Russian consciousness is a regulator of behavior according to the laws of the highest morality."
Phraseologisms probably most clearly reflect the national image of the world, imprinted in the language, determined by it and fixed in it. They embody the “objectification” of general concepts, the names of which, appearing in extra-free combinations, turn out to be metaphorically and metonymically associated with specific persons or things. These concepts are subject to “materialization” in the language; it is the non-rational compatibility of a name, revealed in clichéd phrases, which include phraseological units, that makes it possible to identify the linguistic archetypes behind the name and to recreate the linguistic picture of the world. It is no coincidence that scientists involved in conceptual analysis, in their research, pay special attention to non-free combinations of the name behind which the concept they are interested in stands. So, for example, hope appears to Russians as something fragile, a kind of shell, hollow inside - broken hopes, empty hope; authority is something massive, column-shaped and at the same time devoid of stability - crush with your authority, shaky authority, knowledge, wisdom are something liquid, because they can be drunk (cf. thirst for knowledge) etc.
We agree that the study of such combinations, which most fully reveal the associative and connotative connections of names that denote key concepts of national culture, allows us to describe such concepts.
Precedent statements
Let us now turn to another type of clichéd combinations, which E.M. Vereshchagin and V.G. Kostomarov call linguistic aphorisms and which, in their opinion, have the syntactic form of a phrase, while phraseological units have the syntactic form of a phrase.
Understanding a linguistic aphorism as “a phrase that is known to everyone and therefore is not created anew in speech, but is retrieved from memory,” these scientists identify the following types of similar units:
1) proverbs and sayings - oral short sayings that go back to folklore: They count chickens in the fall, Don't say hello until you jump, It's time for business, it's time for fun;
2) catchphrases, i.e. short quotes, figurative expressions, sayings of historical figures included in our speech from literary sources: To be or not to be. That is the question; And nothing has changed; We wanted the best, but it turned out as always;
3) appeals, mottos, slogans and other catchphrases that express certain philosophical, social, political views (Study, study, and study again...; Freedom, equality, brotherhood);
4) social scientific formulas ( Being determines consciousness) and natural science formulations.
The authors point out that “phraseologisms act as signs of concepts, and therefore they are meaningfully equivalent to words; aphorisms are signs of situations or relationships between things, and are semantically equivalent to sentences.”
As is easy to see, the above classification is carried out on the basis of the origin of those units that Vereshchagin and Kostomarov call linguistic aphorisms. D.B. Gudkov uses the term precedent statement (PV), the definition of which has already been given above (see lecture 6).
The semantics and functioning of PVs is determined not so much by their origin as by other factors. As observations of the modern Russian language (primarily oral speech and the language of the media) show, it is very difficult to distinguish between the use of, for example, “folklore” precedent statements and precedent statements-quotes from classical works. It seems justified to distinguish precedent statements: 1) strictly related to any precedent text (Tell me, uncle...; At the behest of the pike, at my will...); 2) “autonomous” a) having lost contact with the PT that gave birth to them (How beautiful, how fresh the roses were) b) have never had one (Go slower— you will continue).
The generation and perception of PVs belonging to the first and second types will differ from each other. As already indicated, for the formation of the meaning of the text in which the PV appears, the greatest importance is, as a rule, not the superficial, but the deep meaning of the latter. Thus, the surface value of PV Was there a boy?(doubt about the existence of a certain boy, expressed in the form of a question) turns out to be “transparent”, its deep meaning comes to the fore, and this statement is used to express doubt about the existence of something/someone in general. Precedential statements are almost always associated with a precedent text and/or with a precedent situation (Cf. But that's a completely different story). Accordingly, when using and perceiving PV, a certain precedent situation and/or some precedent text is updated in the minds of speakers.
When “autonomous” precedent utterances are generated in the mind of the speaker, the real speech situation reproduces a certain precedent situation, which acts as a standard for situations of this type in general. Accordingly, when perceiving such a precedent utterance, the recipient understands it as a signifier, the signified of which is a certain precedent situation, and this latter is compared by the recipient with the situation of speech (cf. the use of such statements as Eureka!; Russia is great, but there is nowhere to retreat!).
A somewhat different picture is observed when communicants operate with PV that is strictly connected with the precedent text. In this case, with the general action of the mechanism described above, the picture is somewhat different, because in the linguistic consciousness of the carriers of a certain national cultural code, the precedent situation finds its standard expression in one or another PT and is updated through the actualization of the PT in which it is represented (I gave birth to you, I will kill you!- about a strict father punishing his son, and not necessarily as radically as in the corresponding PT; Manuscripts don't burn!- about the incorruptibility of the results of human creativity, and not necessarily literary ones).
In accordance with the three levels of meaning of a statement (surface, deep and systemic meaning), it is possible to distinguish PVs, the use of which actualizes various of these levels:
1) PVs that have only superficial meaning:
Frost and sun- wonderful day!
There are two troubles in Russia-roads and fools!
The functional meaning of the statement (i.e. “who, when and where uses the precedent statement, what, why and why the author of the text containing this statement wants to say” can be understood without knowledge of the corresponding PF;
2) PVs with surface and deep meanings:
The people are silent...- the superficial meaning (general silence) is present, but turns out to be “transparent”, and this PV begins to be used to express “obedient disobedience”, acquiring an additional symbolic meaning of the relationship between the authorities and the people;
3) PV, the surface meaning of which is virtually absent, and through the deep one the systemic meaning is updated:
Monomakh's hat is heavy- we are talking, naturally, not about the cap and not even only about the burden of power, but about the burden of care taken on by someone.
The use of PVs of all three mentioned types turns out to be quite frequent in the speech of modern Russian speakers (especially in the language of the media of various directions), while understanding texts in which precedent statements of the last two types appear presents great difficulties for foreigners, even those who speak well in Russian.
When analyzing the use of PV, another classification of these units seems necessary, which can be divided into two groups:
1) “canonical” PV; they act as a strict quotation that is not subject to change: For what? - Just; Birds don't sing here...;
2) transformed PV; they undergo certain changes. Despite this, the full text of the PV is easily identified and restored:
When actors were big;
Our proud “Varyag” does not surrender to Kuchma.
What is eternity - it's a bathhouse,
Eternity is a bathhouse with spiders.
If this bathhouse
Manka will forget,
What will happen to the Motherland and to us?
(V. Pelevin. “Generation” P»).
The difference in the functioning of these two types of statements is that the transformed precedent statement is first compared with the “canonical” one, and then the mechanism discussed above begins to work. At the same time, the surface meaning of the transformed PV is never “transparent”; it always actively participates in the formation of the meaning of the statement. The main emphasis in this case falls precisely on the word or phrase that replaces “classical” in the “canonical” PV, i.e., a technique that can be called “deceived expectation” is actively used. Let’s consider an example we borrowed from I.V. Zakharenko and V.V. Krasnykh.
"East- it's a dead thing"- the subtitle of the section of the article about the collapse of the USSR, which talks about the Central Asian republics. The deep meaning of the statement is to emphasize that the situation is delicate, requiring knowledge and careful handling; this is emphasized by the precise PV: East is a delicate matter. The indicated meaning is “removed” due to the use of a “low” word in the transformed PV, which bears the main semantic load. In this way, the author expresses his skepticism about the possibilities of any serious transformations in the Central Asian republics.
Let us repeat the main points of the lecture. In ICC, it is necessary to pay attention to the phenomena of paremia, namely, to the ways of storing and presenting cultural information by linguistic and speech clichés of various types.
Among the latter, we highlight, firstly, phraseological units, which can be divided into lexical and syntactic. The main feature of both is that their value is not reducible to the sum of the values of their constituent units. Lexical phraseological units clearly and visually reflect the national “image of the world”, the specificity of the worldview and worldview of the surrounding reality inherent in a particular linguocultural community. In these units, the key concepts of national culture and national consciousness are “materialized,” “reified.”
In addition to phraseological units, precedent statements are highlighted. They are included in the KB of the linguocultural community, are in close relationship with other precedent phenomena, are actively used by native speakers and pose serious difficulties for foreign speakers.
PV can be classified:
a) based on connection with the precedent text (related to PT/“autonomous”);
b) based on connection with three levels of meaning of the statement (surface, deep, systemic meaning);
c) based on the method of reproduction (transformed/non-transformed). Texts in which PVs are present, as a rule, are distinguished by their pronounced expressiveness.
Hello, dear readers of the blog site. It is not for nothing that the Russian language is considered “great and powerful”.
It contains not only words with which you can describe the reality of what is happening, but also words whose meaning does not correspond to the words used in them.
Such phrases (these are phraseological units) cannot be understood “head-on” (literally), because the words used in them sometimes create a completely ridiculous picture. For example, “making a molehill out of a molehill,” “sit in a puddle,” “lead by the nose,” “like water off a duck’s back,” etc. They are used only in a figurative sense and by this.
What is it (with examples)
Phraseologisms are set expressions(everyday used in this form), one of the features of which is that they are almost impossible to translate into other languages. And if you do it verbatim, you get real gobbledygook.
For example, how do you translate the phrases to a foreigner:
With a gulkin nose
Where the eyes look.
Shot sparrow.
At the same time, we, as native speakers of Russian, will immediately understand what we are talking about.
“With a gulkin’s nose” - not enough, just a little bit.
“Where the eyes look” - directly, without a specific goal.
“Shooted Sparrow” is experienced in some matters.
These are some examples of phraseological units. Here is the definition of this concept in textbooks:
“A phraseological unit is an expression that is well-established in structure and composition, which used figuratively and consists of two or more words."
Signs of phraseological units
Phraseologism is quite easy to recognize. These phrases have their own distinctive features:
- They contain two or more words;
- Have stable compound;
- Have portable meaning;
- Have historical roots;
- Are united member of the proposal.
Now let’s take a closer look at each of these distinctive criteria of phraseological units.
These are several words that are one part of a sentence
There are no one-word phraseological units at all. Most often they consist of just two words, but there are many examples of longer phrases.
Here examples of such phrases with an explanation of their meaning:
“He ate the dog” - experienced, has done something more than once.
“You can’t spill water” - very friendly.
“Wait for the weather by the sea” - do nothing and hope that everything will be resolved by itself.
“Seven Fridays a week” - constantly change your plans or decisions.
“Struggle like a fish against ice” - you do something, but it doesn’t give results.
“Well, you’ve made a mess” - you did something that provoked a whole chain of events.
When parsing a sentence, phraseological units are not divided into parts. For example, the phrase “worked until we sweated” is a single predicate. Just like “counting crows” or “washing your hands.”
Phraseologisms are stable phrases in a figurative sense
Such phrases cannot be distorted, adding or removing individual words from them. AND cannot be replaced one word to another. In this way, they resemble a “house of cards” that will fall apart if one card is pulled out of it.
By the way, "House of cards" also an example of a phraseological unit, it is used when they want to say that “something broke very easily or is about to break”.
For example:
“Between heaven and earth” means being in limbo, not knowing what to do.
And in this phrase it is impossible to replace “sky” with, for example, “clouds”, or “earth” with “field”. The result will be a completely different expression than others people won't understand.
More examples of stable phraseological units with an explanation of their meaning:
“To muddy the waters” means to come up with something strange; it is not good to influence others.
“Sloppy” - doing something poorly.
“Roll up your sleeves” - work well and quickly.
“Counting crows” means being distracted, inattentive.
“Staying with your nose” means being deceived.
“Come to your senses” - change your behavior or attitude towards something.
These phrases always have a figurative meaning
As you may have already noticed, all phraseological units have a figurative meaning. That is why they simply cannot be translated into another language.
For example, try translating the phrase into English "disservice". It will sound like “bear service,” and any foreigner will literally understand that “a specific bear provides some kind of service,” and will most likely decide that we are talking about a trained bear.
But we understand perfectly well this phraseological unit, which means “to help in such a way that it became even worse”.
The same can be said about other expressions:
“Grated Kalach” is a man with experience and who cannot be deceived.
“On the topic of the day” is something relevant that is currently attracting a lot of attention.
“I got into a galosh” - I did something absurd, I made a mistake.
“Losing your head” means doing unreasonable things.
“Wash the bones” - discuss someone behind his back.
History of the origin of phraseological units
Some philologists argue that all phraseological units have some kind of historical roots. It’s just that not everything managed to survive before us. But there are phrases about which we know exactly where they came from.
For example, the expression "beat the buck", which means "To do nothing". In the old days, small wooden blocks were called baklushi, from which spoons were most often made. It was very easy to make blanks; this was trusted to the most inept apprentices. And everyone around believed that they weren’t really working.
Or phraseological unit "like water off a duck's back", meaning that “everything is forgiven to a person.” This phrase was created by nature itself. Not only a goose, but also any bird, loses water really quickly, since their feathers have a thin layer of fat.
And here is the expression "Trishkin caftan" is not as widely known, although it means “an unsuccessful attempt to solve some problem that only leads to more problems.” The phrase appeared thanks to Krylov's fable:
Trishka’s caftan was torn at the elbows.
Why take so long to think here? He took up the needle:
I cut off the sleeves by a quarter -
And he paid in elbow grease. The caftan is ready again;
My arms became only a quarter bare.
But what about this sadness?
And here is the phraseological unit "Monomakh's hat", which means "too much responsibility", gave us Pushkin in his drama "Boris Godunov".
Examples of phraseological units and their meaning
And this is not the only example when common expressions appear in the Russian language thanks to literature. For example, a lot came to us from ancient myths and epics, and even from the Bible.
Brief summary
In conclusion, I will say that phraseological units are found in any language in the world. But so many catchphrases, as in Russian, nowhere else.
Good luck to you! See you soon on the pages of the blog site
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