Sociology of personality
Since ancient times, the honor and dignity of the family have been highly valued because the family is the basic unit of society and society is obliged to take care of it first of all. If a man can protect the honor and life of his household, his status increases. If he cannot, he loses his status. In a traditional society, a man who is able to protect the family automatically becomes its head. The wife and children play second and third roles. There are no disputes about who is more important, smarter, more inventive, therefore families are strong, united in socio-psychological terms. In modern society, a man in a family does not have the opportunity to demonstrate his leadership functions. This is why families today are so unstable and conflict-ridden.
Sanctions- the security guards are fine. Social sanctions are an extensive system of rewards for fulfilling norms (conformity), and punishments for deviation from them (i.e., deviance). It should be noted that conformity represents only external agreement with the generally accepted. Internally, an individual may harbor disagreement with the norms, but not tell anyone about it. Conformity there is a goal of social control.
There are four types of sanctions:
Formal positive sanctions- public approval from official organizations, documented in documents with signatures and seals. These include, for example, awarding orders, titles, bonuses, admission to high positions, etc.
Informal positive sanctions- public approval that does not come from official organizations: compliment, smile, fame, applause, etc.
Formal negative sanctions: punishments provided for by laws, instructions, decrees, etc. This means arrest, imprisonment, excommunication, fine, etc.
Informal negative sanctions- punishments not provided for by law - mockery, censure, lecture, neglect, spreading rumors, feuilleton in a newspaper, slander, etc.
Norms and sanctions are combined into one whole. If a norm does not have an accompanying sanction, then it loses its regulatory function. Let's say in the 19th century. In Western European countries, the norm was considered to be the birth of children in a legal marriage. Illegitimate children were excluded from inheriting their parents' property, they could not enter into worthy marriages, and they were neglected in everyday communication. Gradually, as society became more modern, sanctions for violating this norm were excluded, and public opinion softened. As a result, the norm ceased to exist.
1.3.2. Types and forms of social control
There are two types of social control:
internal control or self-control;
external control is a set of institutions and mechanisms that guarantee compliance with norms.
In progress self-control a person independently regulates his behavior, coordinating it with generally accepted norms. This type of control manifests itself in feelings of guilt and conscience. The fact is that generally accepted norms, rational prescriptions remain in the sphere of consciousness (remember, in S. Freud’s “Super-I”), below which is the sphere of the unconscious, consisting of elemental impulses (“It” in S. Freud). In the process of socialization, a person has to constantly struggle with his subconscious, because self-control is the most important condition for the collective behavior of people. The older a person is, the more self-control he should have, in theory. However, its formation can be hindered by cruel external control. The more closely the state takes care of its citizens through the police, courts, security agencies, army, etc., the weaker the self-control. But the weaker the self-control, the stricter the external control should be. Thus, a vicious circle arises leading to the degradation of individuals as social beings. Example: Russia has been overwhelmed by a wave of serious crimes against individuals, including murders. Up to 90% of murders committed only in the Primorsky Territory are domestic, that is, they are committed as a result of drunken quarrels at family celebrations, friendly meetings, etc. According to practitioners, the underlying cause of the tragedies is powerful control by the state and public organizations , parties, churches, peasant communities, who very strictly looked after Russians for almost the entire existence of Russian society - from the time of the Principality of Moscow until the end of the USSR. During perestroika, external pressure began to weaken, and internal control was not enough to maintain stable social relations. As a result, we are seeing an increase in corruption in the ruling class, violations of constitutional rights and individual freedoms. And the population responds to the authorities by increasing crime, drug addiction, alcoholism, and prostitution.
External control exists in informal and formal varieties.
Informal control based on the approval or condemnation of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, public opinion, which is expressed through traditions, customs, or the media. Agents of informal control - family, clan, religion - are important social institutions. Informal control is ineffective in a large group.
Formal control based on approval or condemnation from official authorities and administration. It operates throughout the country and is based on written norms - laws, decrees, instructions, regulations. It is carried out by education, the state, parties, and the media.
Methods of external control, depending on the sanctions applied, are divided into hard, soft, direct, and indirect. Example:
television is an instrument of soft indirect control;
racket is an instrument of direct strict control;
criminal code - direct soft control;
economic sanctions of the international community are an indirect, harsh method.
1.3.3. Deviant behavior, essence, types
The basis of individual socialization is the assimilation of norms. Compliance with norms determines the cultural level of society. Deviation from them is called in sociology deviation.
Deviant behavior is relative. What is a deviation for one person or group may be a habit for another. Thus, the upper class considers its behavior to be the norm, and the behavior of lower social groups to be a deviation. Therefore, deviant behavior is relative because it relates only to the cultural norms of a given group. From the perspective of a criminal, extortion and robbery are considered normal types of income. However, most of the population considers this behavior to be a deviation.
Forms of deviant behavior include criminality, alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution, homosexuality, gambling, mental disorder, and suicide.
What are the causes of deviation? It is possible to identify reasons of a biopsychic nature: it is believed that the tendency to alcoholism, drug addiction, and mental disorders can be transmitted from parents to children. E. Durkheim, R. Merton, neo-Marxists, conflictologists, and cultural experts paid great attention to elucidating the factors influencing the emergence and growth of deviation. They were able to identify social reasons:
anomie, or deregulation of society, appears during social crises. Old values disappear, there are no new ones, and people lose their life guidelines. The number of suicides and crimes is growing, family and morality are being destroyed (E. Durkheim - sociological approach);
anomie, manifested in the gap between the cultural goals of society and socially approved ways of achieving them (R. Merton - sociological approach);
conflict between cultural norms of social groups (E. Sellin - cultural approach);
identification of an individual with a subculture, the norms of which contradict the norms of the dominant culture (V. Miller - cultural approach);
the desire of influential groups to label members of less influential groups as deviants. Thus, in the 30s in the South of the United States, blacks were a priori considered rapists only because of their race (G. Becker - theory of stigmatization);
laws and law enforcement agencies that the ruling classes use against those who are deprived of power (R. Quinney - radical criminology), etc.
Types of deviant behavior. There are many classifications of deviation, but, in our opinion, one of the most interesting is the typology of R. Merton. The author uses his own concept - deviation arises as a result of anomie, a gap between cultural goals and socially approved ways of achieving them.
Merton considers the only type of non-deviant behavior to be conformity - agreement with the goals and means of achieving them. He identifies four possible types of deviation:
innovation- implies agreement with the goals of society and rejection of generally accepted ways of achieving them. “Innovators” include prostitutes, blackmailers, and creators of “financial pyramids.” But great scientists can also be included among them;
ritualism- is associated with the denial of the goals of a given society and an absurd exaggeration of the importance of ways to achieve them. Thus, the bureaucrat demands that each document be carefully filled out, checked twice, and filed in four copies. But at the same time the goal is forgotten - what is all this for?
retreatism(or escape from reality) is expressed in the rejection of both socially approved goals and methods of achieving them. Retreatists include drunkards, drug addicts, homeless people, etc.
riot - denies both goals and methods, but strives to replace them with new ones. For example, the Bolsheviks sought to destroy capitalism and private property and replace them with socialism and public ownership of the means of production. Rejecting evolution, they strived for revolution, etc.
Merton's concept is important primarily because it views conformity and deviance as two sides of the same scale, rather than as separate categories. It also emphasizes that deviation is not the product of an absolutely negative attitude towards generally accepted standards. A thief does not reject the socially approved goal of material well-being, but can strive for it with the same zeal as a young man concerned about his career. The bureaucrat does not abandon the generally accepted rules of work, but he follows them too literally, reaching the point of absurdity. However, both the thief and the bureaucrat are deviants.
In the process of assigning the stigma of a “deviant” to an individual, primary and secondary stages can be distinguished. Primary deviation is the initial action of an offense. It is not even always noticed by society, especially if norms and expectations are violated (for example, at dinner they use a fork rather than a spoon). A person is recognized as a deviant as a result of some kind of processing of information about his behavior carried out by another person, group or organization. Secondary deviation is a process during which, after an act of primary deviation, a person, under the influence of public reaction, accepts a deviant identity, that is, he is rebuilt as a person from the position of the group to which he was assigned. Sociologist I.M. Shur called the process of “getting used to” the image of a deviant as role absorption.
Deviation is much more widespread than official statistics indicate. Society, in fact, consists of 99% deviants. Most of them are moderate deviants. But, according to sociologists, 30% of society members are pronounced deviants with negative or positive deviation. Control over them is asymmetrical. The deviations of national heroes, outstanding scientists, artists, athletes, artists, writers, political leaders, labor leaders, very healthy and beautiful people are maximally approved. The behavior of terrorists, traitors, criminals, cynics, vagabonds, drug addicts, political emigrants, etc. is highly disapproved of.
In earlier times, society considered all sharply deviant forms of behavior undesirable. Geniuses were persecuted like villains, the very lazy and the super-hardworking, the poor and the super-rich were condemned. Reason: sharp deviations from the average norm - positive or negative - threatened to disrupt the stability of society based on traditions, ancient customs and an inefficient economy. In modern society, with the development of the industrial and scientific-technical revolutions, democracy, market, and the formation of a new type of modal personality - the human consumer, positive deviations are considered as an important factor in the development of the economy, political and social life.
Main literature
Theories of personality in American and Western European psychology. - M., 1996.
Smelser N. Sociology. - M., 1994.
Sociology / Ed. acad. G. V. Osipova. - M., 1995.
Kravchenko A.I. Sociology. - M., 1999.
additional literature
Abercrombie N., Hill S., Turner S. B. Sociological Dictionary. - M., 1999.
Western sociology. Dictionary. - M., 1989.
Kravchenko A.I. Sociology. Reader. - Ekaterinburg, 1997.
Kon I. Sociology of personality. M., 1967.
Shibutani T. Social psychology. M., 1967.
Jeri D., Jeri J. Large explanatory sociological dictionary. In 2 vols. M., 1999.
Similar abstracts:
Basic elements of a social control system. Social control as an element of social management. The right to use public resources on behalf of the community. Function of social control according to T. Parsons. Preservation of existing values in society.
Topic No. 17 Concepts: “person”, “personality”, “individual”, “individuality”. Biological and social in man. Personality and social environment. Deviant personality behavior.
Forms of deviant behavior. Laws of social organization. Biological and psychological interpretations of the causes of deviation. Sociological explanation of deviation. State of disorganization of society. Conflictological approach to deviation.
Determining the causes of deviant behavior in connection with the functioning and development of society. Identifying the causes of such a dangerous social phenomenon as crime and methods of its prevention. Sociology of law and law enforcement agencies.
Concept and structure of social role. The meaning of the term "status". Varieties of social status. Innate and ascribed statuses. Concept and elements, types and forms of social control. Types of social norms. Various classifications of social norms.
Characterization of deviant behavior as disapproving from the point of view of public opinion. Positive and negative role of deviation. Causes and forms of teenage deviance. Sociological theories of deviant behavior by E. Durkheim and G. Becker.
Almost the entire life of any society is characterized by the presence of deviations. Social deviations, that is, deviations, are present in every social system. Determining the causes of deviations, their forms and consequences is an important tool for managing society.
Relations between society and the individual. The concept of social control. Elements of social control. Social norms and sanctions. Mechanism of control action.
Term" social control"was introduced into scientific circulation by the French sociologist and social psychologist Gabriel Tarde. He considered it as an important means of correcting criminal behavior. Subsequently, Tarde expanded the considerations of this term and considered social control as one of the main factors of socialization.
Social control is a special mechanism for social regulation of behavior and maintaining public order
Informal and formal control
Informal control is based on the approval or condemnation of a person’s actions on the part of her relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, as well as on the part of public opinion, which is expressed through customs and traditions, etc. Through the media.
In a traditional society there were very few established norms. Most aspects of life for members of traditional rural communities were controlled informally. Strict observance of rituals and ceremonies associated with traditional holidays and ceremonies fostered respect for social norms and an understanding of their necessity.
Informal control is limited to a small group; in a large group it is ineffective. Agents of informal control include relatives, friends, neighbors, acquaintances
Formal control is based on approval or condemnation of a person’s actions by official authorities and administration. In a complex modern society, which numbers many thousands or even millions of Jews, it is impossible to maintain order by means of informal control. In modern society, control over order is carried out by special social institutions, such as courts, educational institutions, the army, churches, mass media, enterprises, etc. Accordingly, employees of these institutions act as agents of formal control.
If an individual goes beyond the limits of social norms, and his behavior does not correspond to social expectations, he will certainly face sanctions, that is, with the emotional reaction of people to normatively regulated behavior.
. Sanctions- these are punishments and rewards that are applied by a social group to an individual
Since social control can be formal or informal, there are four main types of sanctions: formal positive, formal negative, informal positive and informal negative.
. Formal positive sanctions- this is public approval from official organizations: diplomas, prizes, titles and titles, state awards and high positions. They are closely related to the presence of regulations that determine how an individual should behave and which provide rewards for his compliance with normative regulations.
. Formal negative sanctions- these are punishments provided for by legal laws, government regulations, administrative instructions and orders: deprivation of civil rights, imprisonment, arrest, dismissal from work, fines, official penalties, reprimand, death penalty, etc. They are associated with the presence of regulations governing behavior individual and indicate what punishment is intended for non-compliance with these norms.
. Informal positive sanctions- this is public approval from unofficial individuals and organizations: public praise, compliment, tacit approval, applause, fame, smile, etc.
. Informal negative sanctions- this is a punishment unforeseen by official authorities, such as a remark, ridicule, a cruel joke, contempt, an unkind review, slander, etc.
The typology of sanctions depends on the educational system we have chosen.
Considering the method of applying sanctions, current and future sanctions are identified
. Current sanctions are those that are actually used in a particular community. Everyone can be sure that if he goes beyond existing social norms, he will be punished or rewarded according to existing regulations
Prospective sanctions are associated with promises of application of punishment or reward to an individual in case of violation of normative requirements. Very often, only the threat of execution (the promise of a reward) is sufficient to keep the individual within the normative framework.
Another criterion for dividing sanctions is related to the time of their application
Repressive sanctions are applied after an individual performs a certain action. The amount of punishment or reward is determined by public beliefs regarding the harmfulness or usefulness of its action
Preventive sanctions are applied even before an individual commits a certain action. Preventive sanctions are applied with the aim of inducing an individual to the type of behavior that is needed by society
Today, in most civilized countries, the prevailing belief is a “crisis of punishment,” a crisis of state and police control. The movement for the abolition of not only the death penalty, but also legal imprisonment and the transition to alternative measures of punishment and restoration of the rights of victims is growing more and more.
The idea of prevention is considered progressive and promising in world criminology and sociology of deviations
Theoretically, the possibility of crime prevention has long been known. Charles. Montesquieu, in his work “The Spirit of Laws,” noted that “a good legislator is not as concerned about the punishment of crime as the father. In preventing crime, he will try not so much to punish as to improve morality.” Preventive sanctions improve social conditions, create a more favorable atmosphere and reduce inhumane actions. They are useful to protect a specific person, a potential victim, from possible attacks.
However, there is another point of view. While agreeing that the prevention of crime (as well as other forms of deviant behavior) is democratic, liberal and progressive than repression, some sociologists (T. Mathissen, B. Andersen, etc.) question the realism and effectiveness of their preventive measures the arguments are as follows:
Since deviance is a certain conditional construct, a product of social agreements (why, for example, is alcohol allowed in one society, but in another its use is considered a deviation?), It is the legislator who decides what constitutes an offense. Will prevention turn into a way to strengthen the position of officials?
prevention involves influencing the causes of deviant behavior. And who can say with certainty that he knows these reasons? and apply the basis in practice?
prevention is always an intervention in a person’s personal life. Therefore, there is a danger of violation of human rights through the introduction of preventive measures (for example, violation of the rights of homosexuals in the USSR)
The severity of sanctions depends on:
Measures of role formalization. The military, police, and doctors are controlled very strictly, both formally and by the public, and, say, friendship is realized through informal social relationships. Ole, that’s why the sanctions here are quite conditional.
status prestige: roles associated with prestigious statuses are subject to severe external control and self-control
The cohesion of the group within which role behavior occurs, and therefore the strength of group control
Test questions and assignments
1. What behavior is called deviant?
2. What is the relativity of deviation?
3. What behavior is called delinquent?
4. What are the causes of deviant and delinquent behavior?
5. What is the difference between delinquent and deviant behavior?
6. Name the functions of social deviations
7. Describe the biological and psychological theories of deviant behavior and crime
8. Describe sociological theories of deviant behavior and crime
9. What functions does the social control system perform?
10. What are "sanctions"?
11. What difference is there between formal and informal sanctions?
12 Names for the Difference Between Repressive and Preventive Sanctions
13. Prove with examples what the tightening of sanctions depends on
14. What is the difference between methods of informal and formal control?
15. Name of agents of informal and formal control
Term" social control"was introduced into scientific circulation by the French sociologist and social psychologist Gabriel Tarde. He considered it as an important means of correcting criminal behavior. Subsequently, Tarde expanded the considerations of this term and considered social control as one of the main factors of socialization.
Social control is a special mechanism for social regulation of behavior and maintaining public order
Informal and formal control
Informal control is based on the approval or condemnation of a person’s actions on the part of her relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, as well as on the part of public opinion, which is expressed through customs and traditions, etc. Through the media.
In a traditional society there were very few established norms. Most aspects of life for members of traditional rural communities were controlled informally. Strict observance of rituals and ceremonies associated with traditional holidays and ceremonies fostered respect for social norms and an understanding of their necessity.
Informal control is limited to a small group; in a large group it is ineffective. Agents of informal control include relatives, friends, neighbors, acquaintances
Formal control is based on approval or condemnation of a person’s actions by official authorities and administration. In a complex modern society, which numbers many thousands or even millions of Jews, it is impossible to maintain order by means of informal control. In modern society, control over order is carried out by special social institutions, such as courts, educational institutions, the army, churches, mass media, enterprises, etc. Accordingly, employees of these institutions act as agents of formal control.
If an individual goes beyond the limits of social norms, and his behavior does not correspond to social expectations, he will certainly face sanctions, that is, with the emotional reaction of people to normatively regulated behavior.
. Sanctions- these are punishments and rewards that are applied by a social group to an individual
Since social control can be formal or informal, there are four main types of sanctions: formal positive, formal negative, informal positive and informal negative.
. Formal positive sanctions- this is public approval from official organizations: diplomas, prizes, titles and titles, state awards and high positions. They are closely related to the presence of regulations that determine how an individual should behave and which provide rewards for his compliance with normative regulations.
. Formal negative sanctions- these are punishments provided for by legal laws, government regulations, administrative instructions and orders: deprivation of civil rights, imprisonment, arrest, dismissal from work, fines, official penalties, reprimand, death penalty, etc. They are associated with the presence of regulations governing behavior individual and indicate what punishment is intended for non-compliance with these norms.
. Informal positive sanctions- this is public approval from unofficial individuals and organizations: public praise, compliment, tacit approval, applause, fame, smile, etc.
. Informal negative sanctions- this is a punishment unforeseen by official authorities, such as a remark, ridicule, a cruel joke, contempt, an unkind review, slander, etc.
The typology of sanctions depends on the educational system we have chosen.
Considering the method of applying sanctions, current and future sanctions are identified
. Current sanctions are those that are actually used in a particular community. Everyone can be sure that if he goes beyond existing social norms, he will be punished or rewarded according to existing regulations
Prospective sanctions are associated with promises of application of punishment or reward to an individual in case of violation of normative requirements. Very often, only the threat of execution (the promise of a reward) is sufficient to keep the individual within the normative framework.
Another criterion for dividing sanctions is related to the time of their application
Repressive sanctions are applied after an individual performs a certain action. The amount of punishment or reward is determined by public beliefs regarding the harmfulness or usefulness of its action
Preventive sanctions are applied even before an individual commits a certain action. Preventive sanctions are applied with the aim of inducing an individual to the type of behavior that is needed by society
Today, in most civilized countries, the prevailing belief is a “crisis of punishment,” a crisis of state and police control. The movement for the abolition of not only the death penalty, but also legal imprisonment and the transition to alternative measures of punishment and restoration of the rights of victims is growing more and more.
The idea of prevention is considered progressive and promising in world criminology and sociology of deviations
Theoretically, the possibility of crime prevention has long been known. Charles. Montesquieu, in his work “The Spirit of Laws,” noted that “a good legislator is not as concerned about the punishment of crime as the father. In preventing crime, he will try not so much to punish as to improve morality.” Preventive sanctions improve social conditions, create a more favorable atmosphere and reduce inhumane actions. They are useful to protect a specific person, a potential victim, from possible attacks.
However, there is another point of view. While agreeing that the prevention of crime (as well as other forms of deviant behavior) is democratic, liberal and progressive than repression, some sociologists (T. Mathissen, B. Andersen, etc.) question the realism and effectiveness of their preventive measures the arguments are as follows:
Since deviance is a certain conditional construct, a product of social agreements (why, for example, is alcohol allowed in one society, but in another its use is considered a deviation?), It is the legislator who decides what constitutes an offense. Will prevention turn into a way to strengthen the position of officials?
prevention involves influencing the causes of deviant behavior. And who can say with certainty that he knows these reasons? and apply the basis in practice?
prevention is always an intervention in a person’s personal life. Therefore, there is a danger of violation of human rights through the introduction of preventive measures (for example, violation of the rights of homosexuals in the USSR)
The severity of sanctions depends on:
Measures of role formalization. The military, police, and doctors are controlled very strictly, both formally and by the public, and, say, friendship is realized through informal social relationships. Ole, that’s why the sanctions here are quite conditional.
status prestige: roles associated with prestigious statuses are subject to severe external control and self-control
The cohesion of the group within which role behavior occurs, and therefore the strength of group control
Test questions and assignments
1. What behavior is called deviant?
2. What is the relativity of deviation?
3. What behavior is called delinquent?
4. What are the causes of deviant and delinquent behavior?
5. What is the difference between delinquent and deviant behavior?
6. Name the functions of social deviations
7. Describe the biological and psychological theories of deviant behavior and crime
8. Describe sociological theories of deviant behavior and crime
9. What functions does the social control system perform?
10. What are "sanctions"?
11. What difference is there between formal and informal sanctions?
12 Names for the Difference Between Repressive and Preventive Sanctions
13. Prove with examples what the tightening of sanctions depends on
14. What is the difference between methods of informal and formal control?
15. Name of agents of informal and formal control
SOCIOLOGY: HISTORY, FUNDAMENTALS, INSTITUTIONALIZATION in RUSSIA
Chapter 4
TYPES AND FORMS OF CONNECTIONS IN THE SOCIAL SYSTEM
4.2. Social control
Social control, what is it? How does social control relate to social connection? In order to understand this, let's ask ourselves a number of questions. Why do acquaintances bow and smile at each other when they meet, and send greeting cards for the holidays? Why do parents send their children over a certain age to school, but people don't go to work barefoot? A number of similar questions can be continued further. All of them can be formulated as follows. Why do people perform their functions in the same way every day, and some functions even pass from generation to generation?
Thanks to this repetition, the continuity and stability of the development of social life is ensured. It makes it possible to foresee people's reactions to your behavior in advance, this contributes to the mutual adaptation of people to each other, since everyone already knows what they can expect from the other. For example, a driver sitting behind the wheel of a car knows that oncoming cars will keep to the right, and if someone drives towards him and crashes into his car, then he can be punished for this.
Each group develops a number of methods of beliefs, prescriptions and prohibitions, a system of coercion and pressure (even physical), a system of expression that allows the behavior of individuals and groups to be brought into line with accepted patterns of activity. This system is called the social control system. Briefly, it can be formulated as follows: social control is a mechanism of self-regulation in social systems, which is carried out thanks to the normative (legal, moral, etc.) regulation of individual behavior.
In this regard, social control also performs corresponding functions; with its help, the necessary conditions are created for the stability of the social system, it contributes to the preservation of social stability, as well as, at the same time, positive changes in the social system. Therefore, social control requires greater flexibility and the ability to correctly assess various deviations from social norms of activity that occur in society in order to appropriately punish deviations that are harmful to society, and encourage them necessary for its further development.
The implementation of social control begins in the process of socialization, at this time the individual begins to assimilate social norms and values corresponding to the level of development of society, he develops self-control, and he accepts various social roles that impose on him the need to fulfill role requirements and expectations.
The main elements of the social control system: habit, custom and system of sanctions.
Habit- this is a stable way of behavior in certain situations, in some cases taking on the character of a need for the individual, which does not meet with a negative reaction from the group.
Each individual may have his own habits, for example, getting up early, doing exercises in the morning, wearing a certain style of clothing, etc. There are habits that are generally accepted by the entire group. Habits can develop spontaneously and be the product of purposeful upbringing. Over time, many habits develop into stable character traits of an individual and are carried out automatically. Also, habits arise as a result of the acquisition of skills and are established by traditions. Some habits are nothing more than remnants of old rituals and celebrations.
Usually breaking habits does not lead to negative sanctions. If the behavior of an individual corresponds to the habits accepted in the group, then it meets with recognition.
Custom is a stereotypical form of social regulation of behavior, adopted from the past, which meets certain moral assessments of the group and the violation of which leads to negative sanctions. Custom is directly related to a certain coercion for the recognition of values or coercion in a certain situation.
The concept of “custom” is often used as a synonym for the concepts of “tradition” and “ritual”. Custom means strict adherence to instructions that came from the past, and custom, unlike traditions, does not function in all areas of social life. The difference between custom and ritual lies not only in the fact that it symbolizes certain social relations, but also acts as a means used for the practical transformation and use of various objects.
For example, custom requires respecting respectable people, giving way to old and helpless people, treating people who occupy a high position in the group according to etiquette, etc. Thus, custom is a system of values recognized by a group, certain situations in which these values can occur, and standards of behavior consistent with these values. Disrespect for customs and their failure to comply undermine the internal cohesion of the group, since these values have a certain importance for the group. The group, using coercion, encourages its individual members in certain situations to comply with standards of behavior that correspond to its values.
In pre-capitalist society, custom was the main social regulator of public life. But custom not only performs the functions of social control, maintains and strengthens intragroup cohesion, it helps to transmit social and
cultural experience of humanity from generation to generation, i.e. acts as a means of socialization of the younger generation.
Customs include religious rituals, civil holidays, production skills, etc. Currently, the role of the main social regulator in modern societies is no longer performed by customs, but by social institutions. Customs in their “pure” form have been preserved in the sphere of everyday life, morality, civil rituals, and in conventional rules of various kinds - conventions (for example, traffic rules). Depending on the system of social relations in which they are located, customs are divided into progressive and reactionary, outdated. In developed countries, a struggle is being waged against outdated customs, and new progressive civil rites and customs are being established.
Social sanctions. Sanctions are operational measures and means developed by a group necessary to control the behavior of its members, the purpose of which is to ensure internal unity and continuity of social life, stimulating desirable behavior and punishing undesirable behavior of group members.
Sanctions may be negative(punishment for unwanted actions) and positive(reward for desirable, socially approved actions). Social sanctions are an important element of social regulation. Their meaning lies in the fact that they act as an external stimulus inducing an individual to a certain behavior or a certain attitude towards the action being performed.
There are sanctions formal and informal. Formal sanctions - this is the reaction of formal institutions to some behavior or action in accordance with a pre-formulated (in law, charter, regulation) procedure.
Informal (diffuse) sanctions are already a spontaneous, emotionally charged reaction of informal institutions, public opinion, a group of friends, colleagues, neighbors, i.e. immediate environment on behavior deviating from social expectations.
Since an individual is at the same time a member of different groups and institutions, the same sanctions can strengthen or weaken the effect of others.
According to the method of internal pressure, the following sanctions are distinguished:
- legal sanctions - it is a system of punishments and rewards developed and provided for by law;
- ethical sanctions - it is a system of censures, reprimands and incentives based on moral principles;
- satirical sanctions - this is a system of all kinds of ridicule and mockery applied to those who do not behave as is customary;
- religious sanctions- these are punishments or rewards established by the system of dogmas and beliefs of a particular religion, depending on whether the individual’s behavior violates or complies with the prescriptions and prohibitions of this religion [see: 312. P. 115].
Moral sanctions are implemented directly by the social group itself through various forms of behavior and attitudes towards the individual, and legal, political, economic sanctions- through the activities of various social institutions, even those specially created for this purpose (judicial and investigative, etc.).
The following types of sanctions are most common in civilized societies:
Negative informal sanctions - this can be an expression of displeasure, sadness on the face, termination of friendly relations, refusal to shake hands, various gossip, etc. The listed sanctions are important because they are followed by important social consequences (deprivation of respect, certain benefits, etc.).
Negative formal sanctions are all kinds of punishments that are provided for by law (fines, arrests, imprisonment, confiscation of property, death sentence, etc.). These punishments act as a threat, intimidation and, at the same time, warn what awaits the individual for committing antisocial acts.
Informal positive sanctions are the reaction of the immediate environment to positive behavior; which corresponds to the standards of behavior and value systems of the group, expressed in the form of encouragement and recognition (expression of respect, praise and flattering reviews
in oral conversation and in print, friendly gossip, etc.).
Formal positive sanctions are the reaction of formal institutions, carried out by people specially selected for this purpose, to positive behavior (public approval from the authorities, awarding orders and medals, monetary rewards, erection of monuments, etc.).
In the 20th century Researchers' interest in studying the unintended or hidden (latent) consequences of the application of social sanctions has increased. This is due to the fact that tougher punishment can lead to opposite results, for example, fear of risk can lead to a decrease in an individual’s activity and the spread of conformity, and fear of being punished for a relatively minor offense can push a person to commit a more serious crime, hoping to avoid detection. The effectiveness of certain social sanctions must be determined specifically historically, in connection with a certain socio-economic system, place, time and situation. The study of social sanctions is necessary to identify the consequences and to apply them both for society and for the individual.
Each group develops a specific system supervision.
Supervision - it is a system of formal and informal ways of detecting undesirable actions and behavior. Also, supervision is one of the forms of activity of various government bodies to ensure the rule of law.
For example, in our country there are currently prosecutorial supervision and judicial supervision. Prosecutor's supervision means the supervision of the prosecutor's office over the accurate and uniform implementation of laws by all ministries, departments, enterprises, institutions and other public organizations, officials and citizens. And judicial supervision is the procedural activity of courts to verify the validity and legality of sentences, decisions, rulings and court decisions.
In 1882, police supervision was legally established in Russia. This was an administrative measure used in the fight against the liberation movement from the beginning of the 19th century. Police supervision could be open or covert, temporary or lifelong. For example, the supervised person did not have the right to change his place of residence, be in government or public service, etc.
But supervision is not only a system of police institutions, investigative bodies, etc., it also includes everyday monitoring of an individual’s actions by the social environment around him. Thus, the informal system of supervision is a constant assessment of behavior carried out by one group member after another, with a mutual assessment that the individual must take into account in his behavior. Informal supervision plays a large role in regulating everyday behavior in daily contacts, in the performance of professional work, etc.
A system of control, based on a system of various institutions, ensures that social contacts, interactions and relationships are carried out within the limits established by the group. These frameworks are not always too rigid and allow for individual “interpretation.”
SOCIOLOGY: HISTORY, FUNDAMENTALS, INSTITUTIONALIZATION in RUSSIA
Chapter 4
TYPES AND FORMS OF CONNECTIONS IN THE SOCIAL SYSTEM
4.2. Social control
Social control, what is it? How does social control relate to social connection? In order to understand this, let's ask ourselves a number of questions. Why do acquaintances bow and smile at each other when they meet, and send greeting cards for the holidays? Why do parents send their children over a certain age to school, but people don't go to work barefoot? A number of similar questions can be continued further. All of them can be formulated as follows. Why do people perform their functions in the same way every day, and some functions even pass from generation to generation?
Thanks to this repetition, the continuity and stability of the development of social life is ensured. It makes it possible to foresee people's reactions to your behavior in advance, this contributes to the mutual adaptation of people to each other, since everyone already knows what they can expect from the other. For example, a driver sitting behind the wheel of a car knows that oncoming cars will keep to the right, and if someone drives towards him and crashes into his car, then he can be punished for this.
Each group develops a number of methods of beliefs, prescriptions and prohibitions, a system of coercion and pressure (even physical), a system of expression that allows the behavior of individuals and groups to be brought into line with accepted patterns of activity. This system is called the social control system. Briefly, it can be formulated as follows: social control is a mechanism of self-regulation in social systems, which is carried out thanks to the normative (legal, moral, etc.) regulation of individual behavior.
In this regard, social control also performs corresponding functions; with its help, the necessary conditions are created for the stability of the social system, it contributes to the preservation of social stability, as well as, at the same time, positive changes in the social system. Therefore, social control requires greater flexibility and the ability to correctly assess various deviations from social norms of activity that occur in society in order to appropriately punish deviations that are harmful to society, and encourage them necessary for its further development.
The implementation of social control begins in the process of socialization, at this time the individual begins to assimilate social norms and values corresponding to the level of development of society, he develops self-control, and he accepts various social roles that impose on him the need to fulfill role requirements and expectations.
The main elements of the social control system: habit, custom and system of sanctions.
Habit- this is a stable way of behavior in certain situations, in some cases taking on the character of a need for the individual, which does not meet with a negative reaction from the group.
Each individual may have his own habits, for example, getting up early, doing exercises in the morning, wearing a certain style of clothing, etc. There are habits that are generally accepted by the entire group. Habits can develop spontaneously and be the product of purposeful upbringing. Over time, many habits develop into stable character traits of an individual and are carried out automatically. Also, habits arise as a result of the acquisition of skills and are established by traditions. Some habits are nothing more than remnants of old rituals and celebrations.
Usually breaking habits does not lead to negative sanctions. If the behavior of an individual corresponds to the habits accepted in the group, then it meets with recognition.
Custom is a stereotypical form of social regulation of behavior, adopted from the past, which meets certain moral assessments of the group and the violation of which leads to negative sanctions. Custom is directly related to a certain coercion for the recognition of values or coercion in a certain situation.
The concept of “custom” is often used as a synonym for the concepts of “tradition” and “ritual”. Custom means strict adherence to instructions that came from the past, and custom, unlike traditions, does not function in all areas of social life. The difference between custom and ritual lies not only in the fact that it symbolizes certain social relations, but also acts as a means used for the practical transformation and use of various objects.
For example, custom requires respecting respectable people, giving way to old and helpless people, treating people who occupy a high position in the group according to etiquette, etc. Thus, custom is a system of values recognized by a group, certain situations in which these values can occur, and standards of behavior consistent with these values. Disrespect for customs and their failure to comply undermine the internal cohesion of the group, since these values have a certain importance for the group. The group, using coercion, encourages its individual members in certain situations to comply with standards of behavior that correspond to its values.
In pre-capitalist society, custom was the main social regulator of public life. But custom not only performs the functions of social control, maintains and strengthens intragroup cohesion, it helps to transmit social and
cultural experience of humanity from generation to generation, i.e. acts as a means of socialization of the younger generation.
Customs include religious rituals, civil holidays, production skills, etc. Currently, the role of the main social regulator in modern societies is no longer performed by customs, but by social institutions. Customs in their “pure” form have been preserved in the sphere of everyday life, morality, civil rituals, and in conventional rules of various kinds - conventions (for example, traffic rules). Depending on the system of social relations in which they are located, customs are divided into progressive and reactionary, outdated. In developed countries, a struggle is being waged against outdated customs, and new progressive civil rites and customs are being established.
Social sanctions. Sanctions are operational measures and means developed by a group necessary to control the behavior of its members, the purpose of which is to ensure internal unity and continuity of social life, stimulating desirable behavior and punishing undesirable behavior of group members.
Sanctions may be negative(punishment for unwanted actions) and positive(reward for desirable, socially approved actions). Social sanctions are an important element of social regulation. Their meaning lies in the fact that they act as an external stimulus inducing an individual to a certain behavior or a certain attitude towards the action being performed.
There are sanctions formal and informal. Formal sanctions - this is the reaction of formal institutions to some behavior or action in accordance with a pre-formulated (in law, charter, regulation) procedure.
Informal (diffuse) sanctions are already a spontaneous, emotionally charged reaction of informal institutions, public opinion, a group of friends, colleagues, neighbors, i.e. immediate environment on behavior deviating from social expectations.
Since an individual is at the same time a member of different groups and institutions, the same sanctions can strengthen or weaken the effect of others.
According to the method of internal pressure, the following sanctions are distinguished:
- legal sanctions - it is a system of punishments and rewards developed and provided for by law;
- ethical sanctions - it is a system of censures, reprimands and incentives based on moral principles;
- satirical sanctions - this is a system of all kinds of ridicule and mockery applied to those who do not behave as is customary;
- religious sanctions- these are punishments or rewards established by the system of dogmas and beliefs of a particular religion, depending on whether the individual’s behavior violates or complies with the prescriptions and prohibitions of this religion [see: 312. P. 115].
Moral sanctions are implemented directly by the social group itself through various forms of behavior and attitudes towards the individual, and legal, political, economic sanctions- through the activities of various social institutions, even those specially created for this purpose (judicial and investigative, etc.).
The following types of sanctions are most common in civilized societies:
Negative informal sanctions - this can be an expression of displeasure, sadness on the face, termination of friendly relations, refusal to shake hands, various gossip, etc. The listed sanctions are important because they are followed by important social consequences (deprivation of respect, certain benefits, etc.).
Negative formal sanctions are all kinds of punishments that are provided for by law (fines, arrests, imprisonment, confiscation of property, death sentence, etc.). These punishments act as a threat, intimidation and, at the same time, warn what awaits the individual for committing antisocial acts.
Informal positive sanctions are the reaction of the immediate environment to positive behavior; which corresponds to the standards of behavior and value systems of the group, expressed in the form of encouragement and recognition (expression of respect, praise and flattering reviews
in oral conversation and in print, friendly gossip, etc.).
Formal positive sanctions are the reaction of formal institutions, carried out by people specially selected for this purpose, to positive behavior (public approval from the authorities, awarding orders and medals, monetary rewards, erection of monuments, etc.).
In the 20th century Researchers' interest in studying the unintended or hidden (latent) consequences of the application of social sanctions has increased. This is due to the fact that tougher punishment can lead to opposite results, for example, fear of risk can lead to a decrease in an individual’s activity and the spread of conformity, and fear of being punished for a relatively minor offense can push a person to commit a more serious crime, hoping to avoid detection. The effectiveness of certain social sanctions must be determined specifically historically, in connection with a certain socio-economic system, place, time and situation. The study of social sanctions is necessary to identify the consequences and to apply them both for society and for the individual.
Each group develops a specific system supervision.
Supervision - it is a system of formal and informal ways of detecting undesirable actions and behavior. Also, supervision is one of the forms of activity of various government bodies to ensure the rule of law.
For example, in our country there are currently prosecutorial supervision and judicial supervision. Prosecutor's supervision means the supervision of the prosecutor's office over the accurate and uniform implementation of laws by all ministries, departments, enterprises, institutions and other public organizations, officials and citizens. And judicial supervision is the procedural activity of courts to verify the validity and legality of sentences, decisions, rulings and court decisions.
In 1882, police supervision was legally established in Russia. This was an administrative measure used in the fight against the liberation movement from the beginning of the 19th century. Police supervision could be open or covert, temporary or lifelong. For example, the supervised person did not have the right to change his place of residence, be in government or public service, etc.
But supervision is not only a system of police institutions, investigative bodies, etc., it also includes everyday monitoring of an individual’s actions by the social environment around him. Thus, the informal system of supervision is a constant assessment of behavior carried out by one group member after another, with a mutual assessment that the individual must take into account in his behavior. Informal supervision plays a large role in regulating everyday behavior in daily contacts, in the performance of professional work, etc.
A system of control, based on a system of various institutions, ensures that social contacts, interactions and relationships are carried out within the limits established by the group. These frameworks are not always too rigid and allow for individual “interpretation.”