Stages and program of applied sociological research. Sociological research program and sample - abstract

Sociological research

1 . Stages and types of sociological research

Sociological research is a process consisting of logically consistent methodological, methodological, organizational and technical procedures connected by a single goal - obtaining reliable data about the phenomenon under study for subsequent practical application.

There are three main types of sociological research: reconnaissance (probing, pilot), descriptive and analytical.

Intelligence research- This is the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows you to solve limited problems. In fact, when using this type, tools (methodological documents) are tested: questionnaires, questionnaires, cards, study of documents, etc.

The program for such research is simplified, as are the tools. The populations surveyed are small - from 20 to 100 people.

Exploratory research usually precedes an in-depth study of the problem. During it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions and their formulation are clarified.

Descriptive research- This is a more complex type of sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is studied that gives a relatively holistic picture of the social phenomenon being studied. The object of analysis is a large social group, for example, the workforce of a large enterprise.

A descriptive study may employ one or more methods of collecting empirical data. The combination of methods increases the reliability and completeness of information, allows you to draw deeper conclusions and substantiate recommendations.

The most serious type of sociological research is analytical research. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process being studied, but also allows us to find out the reasons underlying it. It studies the combination of many factors that justify a particular phenomenon. Analytical research, as a rule, completes exploratory and descriptive research, during which information was collected that gives a preliminary understanding of certain elements of the social phenomenon or process being studied.

In sociological research, three main stages can be distinguished: 1) development of a research program and methods;

2) conducting empirical research;

3) data processing and analysis, drawing conclusions, drawing up a report.

All of these steps are extremely important and require special attention.

Let us take a closer look at the stage of compiling a sociological research report.

The results of the analysis of information obtained during empirical research are reflected, as a rule, in a report that contains data of interest to the customer. The structure of the report based on the results of the study most often corresponds to the logic of operationalization of basic concepts, but the sociologist, when preparing this document, follows the path of deduction, gradually reducing sociological data into indicators. The number of sections in the report usually corresponds to the number of hypotheses formulated in the research program. Initially, a report on the main hypothesis is given.

As a rule, the first section of the report contains a brief justification of the relevance of the social problem being studied, a description of the research parameters (sampling, methods of collecting information, number of participants, timing, etc.). The second section provides a description of the research object based on socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, social status, etc.). Subsequent sections include searching for answers to the hypotheses put forward in the program.

Sections of the report can be divided into paragraphs if necessary. It is advisable to end each paragraph with conclusions. The conclusion of the report is best presented in the form of practical recommendations based on general conclusions. The report can be presented on 30-40 or 200-300 pages. It depends on the volume of material, goals and objectives of the study.

The appendix to the report contains methodological and methodological research documents: program, plan, tools, instructions, etc. In addition, the appendix most often contains tables, graphs, individual opinions, answers to open questions that were not included in the report. This can be used in subsequent research programs.

2. Sociological research program

Sociological Research Program- this is one of the most important sociological documents, which contains the methodological, methodological and procedural foundations for the study of a social object. A sociological research program can be considered as a theory and methodology specific research a separate empirical object or phenomenon, which represents the theoretical and methodological basis of procedures at all stages of research, collection, processing and analysis of information.

It performs three functions: methodological, methodological and organizational.

The methodological function of the program allows you to clearly define the problem under study, formulate the goals and objectives of the study, determine and conduct a preliminary analysis of the object and subject of the study, and establish the relationship of this study to previously carried out or parallel studies on this topic.

The methodological function of the program allows you to develop a general logical research plan, on the basis of which the research cycle is carried out: theory - facts - theory.

The organizational function ensures the development of a clear system of division of responsibilities between members of the research team and allows for effective dynamics of the research process.

Sociological research program as scientific document must meet a number of necessary requirements. It reflects a certain sequence and stage-by-stage nature of sociological research. Each stage, a relatively independent part of the cognitive process, is characterized by specific tasks, the solution of which is related to the general goal of the study. All components of the program are logically connected and subordinate to the general meaning of the search. The principle of strict phasing puts forward special requirements for the structure and content of the program.

The sociological research program consists of main parts: methodological and procedural. Ideally, the program contains the following sections: statement of the problem, goals and objectives of the research, object and subject of research, interpretation of basic concepts, research methods, research plan.

Ratio Problems And problematic situation depends on the type of research, on the scale and depth of the sociology of the study of the object. In a real-life object, a property is identified, defined as its side, which is determined by the nature of the problem, thereby denoting the subject of research. Subject means the boundaries within which a particular object is studied in in this case. Next, you need to set the goals and objectives of the study.

The goal is focused on the end result. Goals can be theoretical and applied. Theoretical - give a description or explanation of a social program. Realization of the theoretical goal leads to an increase scientific knowledge. Application purposes are aimed at developing practical recommendations for further scientific development.

Tasks- individual parts, research steps that contribute to achieving the goal. Setting goals means, to some extent, a plan of action to achieve a goal. Objectives formulate questions that must be answered to achieve the goal. Tasks can be basic or private. Fundamentals are a means of addressing the main research questions. Particulars - for testing side hypotheses, solving some methodological issues.

In order to use a single conceptual apparatus The sociological research program defines the basic concepts.

The entire process of logical analysis comes down to the translation of theoretical, abstract concepts to operational ones, with the help of which tools for collecting empirical data are compiled.

A preliminary system analysis of an object is a modeling of the problem under study, breaking it down into elements, and detailing the problem situation. This allows you to more clearly present the subject of research.

An important place in the development of a research program is occupied by the formulation of hypotheses, which are specified as its main methodological tool.

Hypothesis is a probabilistic assumption about the causes of a phenomenon, the relationships between the social phenomena being studied, the structure of the problem being studied, and possible approaches to solving social problems.

The hypothesis gives the direction of the research, influences the choice of research methods and the formulation of questions.

The study must confirm, reject, or adjust the hypothesis.

Several types of hypotheses can be distinguished:

1) main and output;

2) basic and non-core;

3) primary and secondary;

4) descriptive (assumption about the properties of objects, about the nature of the connection between individual elements) and explanatory (assumption about the degree of closeness of connections and cause-and-effect dependencies in the social processes and phenomena being studied).

Basic requirements for the formulation of hypotheses. Hypothesis:

1) should not contain concepts that have not received empirical interpretation, otherwise it is unverifiable;

2) should not contradict previously established scientific facts;

3) should be simple;

4) must be verifiable at a given level of theoretical knowledge, methodological equipment and practical research capabilities.

The main difficulty in formulating hypotheses lies in the need to match their goals and objectives of the study, which contain clear and precise concepts.

The procedural part of the sociological research program includes the research methodology and technique, i.e., a description of the method of collecting, processing and analyzing sociological research information.

Depending on the specifics of the object, the choice of methods for collecting sociological information is made. The description of information collection methods involves justifying the chosen methods, recording the main elements of the tools and technical techniques for working with them. The description of methods for processing information involves indicating how this will be done using application computer programs.

A sociological research program is a document that organizes and directs research activities in a certain sequence, outlining ways for its implementation. Preparing a sociological research program requires high qualifications and time. The success of empirical sociological research largely depends on the quality of the program.

3. Methods of sociological research

Method is the main way of collecting, processing or analyzing data. Technique is a set of special techniques for effective use one method or another. Methodology is a concept that denotes a set of technical techniques associated with a given method, including private operations, their sequence and interrelation. Procedure - the sequence of all operations, general system actions and the way of organizing the research.

As the main methods used in social empirical studies, the following can be distinguished.

Observation is the purposeful perception of phenomena of objective reality, during which the researcher gains knowledge regarding the external aspects, states and relationships of the objects that are being studied. The forms and methods of recording observation data can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, film or television camera, and others. technical means. The peculiarity of observation as a method of collecting information is the ability to analyze diverse impressions about the object under study.

It is possible to record the nature of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, and expressions of emotions. There are two main types of observation: included and non-participated.

If the behavior of people is studied by a sociologist as a member of a group, then he conducts participant observation. If a sociologist studies behavior from the outside, then he conducts non-participant observation.

The main object of observation is both the behavior of individual people and social groups, and the conditions of their activities.

Experiment- a method whose purpose is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice.

The logic of its implementation is to, by selecting a certain experimental group (groups) and placing it in an unusual experimental situation (under the influence of a certain factor), to trace the direction, magnitude and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher.

There are field and laboratory experiments, linear and parallel. When selecting experimental participants, methods of pairwise selection or structural identification, as well as random selection, are used.

Experimental design and logic include the following procedures:

1) selection of an object used as an experimental and control group;

2) selection of control, factor and neutral characteristics;

3) determination of experimental conditions and creation of an experimental situation;

4) formulating hypotheses and defining tasks; -

5) selection of indicators and method of monitoring the progress of the experiment.

Document analysis- one of the widely used and effective methods of collecting primary information.

The source of sociological information is not text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions, decisions, publications, letters, etc.

A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used for the characteristics and specific historical development of the phenomenon or process being studied.

The selection of information sources depends on the research program, and specific or random sampling methods may be used.

There are:

1) external analysis documents, in which the circumstances of the occurrence of documents are studied; their historical and social context;

2) internal analysis, during which the content of the document is studied, everything that is evidenced by the text of the source, and those objective processes and phenomena that the document reports.

A survey - a method of collecting sociological information - provides for:

1) an oral or written appeal by the researcher to a certain population of people (respondents) with questions, the content of which represents the problem being studied at the level of empirical indicators;

2) registration and statistical processing of the responses received, their theoretical interpretation.

In each case, the survey involves addressing directly the participant and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation. This method of sociological research is the most popular and widespread.

The main types of survey, depending on written or oral form communication with respondents are questionnaires and interviews. They are based on a set of questions that are offered to respondents and the answers to which constitute an array of primary data. Questions are asked to respondents through a questionnaire or questionnaire.

Interview- a focused conversation, the purpose of which is to obtain answers to the questions provided for by the research program. Advantages of an interview over a questionnaire survey: the ability to take into account the level of culture of the interviewee, his attitude to the topic of the survey and individual problems, expressed intonationally, flexibly change the wording of questions taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, and pose the necessary additional questions.

Despite some flexibility, the interview is conducted in accordance with a specific program and research plan, which records all the main questions and options for additional questions.

The following types of interviews can be distinguished:

2) by technique (free and standardized);

3) according to the procedure (intensive, focused).

Questionnaires classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. There are open questions when respondents express themselves in free form. In a closed questionnaire, all answer options are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures.

When preparing and conducting sociological survey There are three main stages.

At the first stage, the theoretical background of the survey is determined:

1) goals and objectives;

2) problem;

3) object and subject;

4) operational definition of initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators.

During the second stage, the sample is justified and:

1) the general population (those layers and groups of the population to which the survey results are expected to be extended);

2) rules for searching and selecting respondents at the last stage of sampling.

At the third stage, the questionnaire is justified:

2) justification of the questionnaire regarding the capabilities of the population being surveyed as a source of the information sought;

3) standardization of requirements and instructions for questionnaires and interviewers on organizing and conducting a survey, establishing contact with the respondent, and recording responses;

4) providing preconditions for processing the results on a computer;

5) ensuring organizational requirements for the survey.

Depending on the source (media) of primary information, mass and specialized surveys differ. In a mass survey, the main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are directly related to the subject of analysis. Participants in mass surveys are usually called respondents.

In specialized surveys, the main source of information is competent individuals whose professional or theoretical knowledge and life experience allow them to draw authoritative conclusions.

The participants in such surveys are experts who can give a balanced assessment on issues of interest to the researcher.

Hence, another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is the method of expert assessments.

Types of scales and rules for their construction.

Measurement in sociology is a way of studying social phenomena using quantitative estimates. The use of numerical measurement methods led to the emergence of scales. Measurement is a procedure by which social objects. iss are mapped to a specific numerical or graphic system. The main components of measurements: measurement objects, their properties, scales on which measurements are displayed. When taking measurements in sociology, it is necessary to make selections and scales. The construction of one type of scale or another involves, first of all, defining an indicator, i.e. factor that can quantitatively reflect the measured properties. The indicator can be gender, age, education, etc. often more than one is needed

several indicators, in each case the choice of a set of indicators depends on the nature of the object and the conditions in which it is located. When constructing a scale, it is necessary: the scale must reflect exactly those properties that are measured and take into account all values, the sensitivity of the scale must be sufficient,

As a rule, all positions are placed symmetrically (value c + symmetrically

value c -) sufficient accuracy and reliability (resistance to changes in the object) of the scale to objectively reflect the picture of measurements.

There are 3 types of scale:

nominal. An example is the self-esteem scale. This is the simplest type of installation measurement scale. It can be constructed in the form of a regular question or in the form of a number line with positive and negative gradations. When constructing a self-esteem scale in the form of a “traditional” question, its positions are necessarily arranged symmetrically and consist of equal number positive and negative assessments, separated by a “neutral” position.

rank,Ranking scale. It is distinguished by the fact that the results of measuring attitudes with its help are analyzed in accordance with the rules applicable to ranking scales. The simplest method of measuring attitudes according to the rules of such a scale is for respondents to rank those objects whose attitude towards them interests the researcher. Thus, to identify the chances of success of a particular candidate in multi-member elections, respondents are asked to arrange cards with the names of candidates in order of preference. In this case, all objects are significant from the point of view of the subject of research. The ranking result will provide information about the candidates' chances of being elected.

interval. Used only for numeric values, such as age,

work experience, etc. There are complex options for measuring using a ranking scale - the method of paired comparisons. Its essence lies in the fact that the objects indicated on the cards (their names) are shown in turn in pairs for evaluation

respondents, asking them to indicate their preferred one. Bogardus scale -

its main purpose is to measure national and racial attitudes.

The peculiarity of this scale is that each assessment (opinion, position) automatically includes everything that follows and excludes everything that preceded it. The question for her has the following wording: “What kind of relationship with a representative of such and such nationality is acceptable to you?” - Marriage relations; Personal friendship; Be neighbors; Be colleagues at work; To be residents of one city, town, village; etc. Experience suggests that such scales can be constructed and successfully used to measure attitudes towards phenomena in various fields public relations.

Applied sociological research is aimed at obtaining a system of facts that form the empirical basis of sociological theory or have independent specific applied significance, satisfying the practical needs of specific customers (managers of enterprises, representatives of public organizations, parties and associations, bodies government controlled, mass media). It is carried out with the aim of confirming or refuting theoretical assumptions and hypotheses.

"Applied sociological research has a number of stages of its implementation, which differ from each other in nature and content, forms and procedures research activities. These stages are interconnected and united by the logic of a single research plan. These are:

1) preparatory stage;
2) field stage;
3) preparation for processing and processing of information;
4) analysis of information and preparation of final documents of sociological research" Smekhnova G.P. Fundamentals applied sociology. M.: University Textbook, 2010. - p.41..

The preparatory stage of empirical sociological research is full of different types of work, scientific and practical procedures. The quality of preparation ensures the value of the information that will be obtained as a result of the research. At this stage, the topic is clarified, theoretical concept, research program, sampling is established, methodological documents for collecting information are developed and replicated, research tools are determined, research groups are formed, work schedules are drawn up, organizational events, issues related to the logistics of the study are being resolved.

The field stage (or the stage of collecting primary sociological information) is associated with the collection of information “in the field,” i.e. in the zone of practical action of a sociologist - obtaining information from its human carriers: in classrooms, on the streets, in classrooms, at home, in production, etc. Information is collected in various ways and tools that are inherent in sociology and determined by the research program: using various types of surveys (questionnaire, interview, expert, etc.), observation, document analysis, experiment.

Stage of preparation and processing of information. The information obtained at the field stage needs to be verified and organized. The entire collected array is studied from the point of view of sample deviation from the calculated parameters. The procedure for checking the collected array includes reviewing methodological documents for accuracy, completeness and quality of completion and rejecting those that do not meet the requirements. At the same stage, open-ended questions are encoded. Compiled logic program processing information on a computer is the task of a mathematician-programmer. In some cases (with small arrays and a small amount of tools), information processing is done manually.

Analysis of information and preparation of final documents (or final stage). The methodological tool for analysis is the research program drawn up at the preparatory stage. Methods of analysis depend on the type of sociological research, its goals and objectives. During the analysis, conclusions are drawn to confirm or refute hypotheses, social connections, trends, contradictions, paradoxes, and new social problems are identified. At the same stage, the results of the study are compiled. The final document depends on the type of research and is determined by the wishes of the customer. Such a document is:

1) information certificate;
2) information note;
3) analytical note;
4) report on research work.

The analytical note and report must contain conclusions and recommendations for resolving the problem to which the social research was devoted.

"The sociological research program is a systematic presentation of the theoretical and methodological premises, the general concept research project in accordance with the main goals and objectives of the work being undertaken, the methodological and procedural foundations for its implementation, the hypotheses put forward and logically sequential operations for testing them" Smekhnova G.P. Fundamentals of Applied Sociology. M.: Vuzovsky Textbook, 2010. - p. 52..

The methodological section of the program consists of formulating the problem, defining the goals and objectives of the study, the object and subject of the study, as well as the formulation of working hypotheses.

The starting point of any research, including sociological research, is a problematic situation that develops in real life. It is the isolation and understanding of the problem that has arisen that is the first, initial step in constructing a program. The problem is a form of interrogative statements expressing uncertainty, which is subject to scientific and practical clarification and applied resolution. In other words, the problem is a social order that a sociologist conducting applied research must fulfill. For example, when researching economic behavior various groups population, the main question stands out as a problem: how, in what ways and by what means can the activity of this behavior be increased, given that it is formed and developed in modern conditions of the formation of market relations.

When identifying and conceptualizing a research problem, it is necessary to take into account several different, although closely related, aspects. The first of these aspects is epistemological (cognitive), which consists in the fact that there is awareness of a social need (how to activate economic behavior), with ignorance of the ways and means of solving it. The second aspect of the problem is substantive. Its essence is that there is some contradiction in society that must be resolved. The third aspect of the problem is defining it by its carrier, i.e. according to the social subject that, in its activities (or due to the lack thereof) creates a problem that requires its solution (entrepreneurs, workers, the state, public opinion).

The fourth aspect of the problem is determining its scale (global, country, intercountry, regional, local). In the example under consideration, the problem of intensifying economic behavior is cross-country, because it exists in all countries.

In the process of clarifying a research problem, a sociologist has to carry out two main procedures: 1) understanding the problem situation and 2) formulating the problem.

The problem situation can become not only narrower, but also wider social problem. For example, modern society is faced with an extremely serious problem situation - the growing scale of delinquency and crime among young people. This problematic situation gives rise to whole line problems that require solutions using methods various sciences- psychology, sociology, criminology, etc., each of which, when isolating the aspect of the problem peculiar only to it, determines for itself the object of research within the framework of this problem. For example, the problem of difficulties and contradictions in the socialization of adolescents and youth in the conditions of a socio-economic crisis is a problem of applied sociological research. The problem of the growing scale and variety of offenses and crimes committed by adolescents and young people is a problem of criminology. The problem of socio-psychological mechanisms (influence of elders, imitation, etc.) is a problem psychological research offenses and crimes committed in adolescence and youth.

It is widely believed that a problem situation is a contradiction that actually exists in social reality (for example, between the social need to intensify economic behavior and social factors that impede such activation), the methods for resolving which are currently not yet known or clear. Therefore, we can talk about a problem situation when the methods for achieving the goals defined during the formation of the problem are not known. When developing a program of applied sociological research, it is necessary to translate what is intuitively established and vaguely expressed in the public consciousness (or in the opinion of the customer) social contradiction into precise language theoretical interpretation. And this means the requirement to separate the known from the unknown, already solved problems that do not require special analysis, from those that require well-defined theoretical and practical actions aimed at obtaining new knowledge that, if applied in practice, can lead to the resolution of the problem. situations.

The first step in solving any problem is its formulation, which will allow us to determine the solution to the problem and select ways and methods to achieve goals. This is achieved through:

- highlighting the object and subject;
- determining the goals and objectives of the study;
- formulation of hypotheses (assumptions) and options for solving the problem under study.

A problem becomes subject to solution only when it is recognized in some specific social phenomenon or process(es), i.e. by highlighting the object and subject of research. An object - This is a set of phenomena, processes or a certain sphere of social reality, acting as factors in a problem situation, to which the cognitive activity of a sociologist is directed. In the methodological part of the program, based on the essence of the identified problem, it is necessary to formulate initial ideas about the object of research, the relevance and importance of its study in the applied sense.

The subject of research is a certain aspect or property (properties), features of an object, specified for direct study in this particular applied research. The choice of the subject of research allows you to outline the scope of the research project being undertaken and at the same time allows you to select those aspects, properties of the object being studied and the connections existing between them that most clearly express central question Problems.

The content of the problem, the characteristics of the object and subject under study determine the strategy of applied research and its focus, expressed in its goals and objectives. The goal of applied sociological research is the planned result towards which the research activities of sociologists are aimed. By clearly setting the research goal in the program, the identification of possible directions for solving this problem, determining the scope of work, temporary and financial costs, human and material and technical resources, methodological and procedural support for achieving the expected result. This allows you to clearly establish the relationship between the customer and the contractor, the rights and obligations of the parties, reflected in the regulatory part of the program as social document, which determines the form of presentation of the research results.

A clear clarification of the purpose of the study allows us to identify its clear objectives. Research tasks are formulated as specific target settings, defining the main directions and stages of solving the problem posed. Each type of research problem (theoretical, empirical, descriptive) corresponds to a certain composition of cognitive actions, techniques and methods of sociological research. This allows:

1) coordinate diverse activities of the research team (developing a program, constructing tools, conducting surveys, interviews, etc., mathematical processing of empirical materials, their theoretical understanding, formulating conclusions and scientifically based recommendations);
2) control and coordinate with each other the results obtained at various stages of the study;
3) summarize everything received in different ways(statistical data, content analysis of documents, results of surveys, interviews, etc.) to a common denominator, to the formulation of general conclusions and results of the research, and their provision to the customer.

Based on the definition of the subject and object of sociological research, goals and objectives are determined, which in turn determine the choice of methods.

Definitions of the subject and object of sociological research, and the choice of research methods influence the formation of a hypothesis - the final part of the theoretical preparation of empirical sociological research. “A research hypothesis is a scientifically based assumption about the structure of the social phenomenon being studied or about the nature of the connections between its components. Hypotheses are developed on the basis of available facts” Smekhnova G.P. Fundamentals of applied sociology. M.: University Textbook, 2010. - p.67.

In science there are certain rules putting forward and testing hypotheses:

1) A hypothesis must be in agreement with, or at least compatible with, all the facts to which it concerns.
2) Of the many opposing hypotheses put forward to explain a series of facts, the one that uniformly explains the greater number is preferable.
3) To explain a related series of facts, it is necessary to put forward as few hypotheses as possible, and their connection should be as close as possible.
4) When putting forward hypotheses, it is necessary to be aware of the probabilistic nature of its conclusions.
5) It is impossible to be guided by contradictory hypotheses.

Hypotheses are the starting points for research; further stages of empirical sociological research are directly dependent on the hypotheses put forward. To test the hypothesis and research procedures, a preliminary pilot study is often carried out.

Depending on the theoretical level of the interpreted concepts, hypotheses are divided into basic and inferential (hypotheses of cause and hypotheses of effect).

In conclusion, we can conclude that the main criterion for the scientific nature of the results of sociological research is their objectivity, which is largely determined by the methods used in sociological research.

Sociology, unlike other social sciences, actively uses empirical methods: questionnaires, interviews, observation, experiment, analysis of statistical data and documents. Sociological research is a process consisting of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational-technical procedures connected by a single goal - obtaining reliable data about the phenomenon under study for subsequent practical application.

There are three main types of sociological research: reconnaissance (probing, pilot), descriptive and analytical.

Intelligence research- this is the simplest type sociological analysis, allowing you to solve limited problems. In fact, when using this type, there is a test of tools (methodological documents): questionnaires, questionnaires, cards, study of documents, etc.

The program for such research is simplified, as are the tools. The populations surveyed are small – from 20 to 100 people.

Exploratory research usually precedes an in-depth study of the problem. During it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions and their formulation are clarified.

Descriptive research is a more complex type of sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is studied that gives a relatively holistic picture of the social phenomenon being studied. Object of analysis– a large social group, for example, the workforce of a large enterprise.

Most serious look sociological research – analytical research. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process being studied, but also allows us to find out the reasons underlying it. It studies the combination of many factors that justify a particular phenomenon. Analytical research, as a rule, completes exploratory and descriptive research, during which information was collected that gives a preliminary understanding of certain elements of the social phenomenon or process being studied.

In sociological research, three main stages can be distinguished:

1) development of a research program and methods;

2) conducting empirical research;

3) data processing and analysis, drawing conclusions, drawing up a report.

All of these steps are extremely important and require special attention. The first stage will be discussed in detail in the next lecture. The second stage depends on the chosen type of sociological research and methods. Therefore, let us take a closer look at the stage of compiling a sociological research report.

Sections of the report can be divided into paragraphs if necessary. It is advisable to end each paragraph with conclusions. The conclusion of the report is best presented in the form of practical recommendations based on general conclusions. The report may be 30–40 or 200–300 pages. It depends on the volume of material, goals and objectives of the study.

The appendix to the report contains methodological and methodological research documents: program, plan, tools, instructions, etc. In addition, the appendix most often includes tables, graphs, individual opinions, answers to open questions, which were not included in the report. This can be used in subsequent research programs.

2. Sociological research program

A sociological research program is one of the most important sociological documents, which contains the methodological, methodological and procedural foundations for the study of a social object. A sociological research program can be considered as a theory and methodology for a specific study of a separate empirical object or phenomenon, which represents the theoretical and methodological basis for the procedures at all stages of research, collection, processing and analysis of information.

It performs three functions: methodological, methodological and organizational.

The methodological function of the program allows you to develop a general logical research plan, on the basis of which the research cycle is carried out: theory - facts - theory.

The organizational function ensures the development of a clear system of division of responsibilities between members of the research team and allows for effective dynamics of the research process.

A sociological research program as a scientific document must meet a number of necessary requirements. It reflects a certain sequence and stage-by-stage nature of sociological research. Each stage, a relatively independent part of the cognitive process, is characterized by specific tasks, the solution of which is related to the general goal of the study. All components of the program are logically connected and subordinate to the general meaning of the search. The principle of strict phasing puts forward special requirements for the structure and content of the program.

The sociological research program consists of two main parts: methodological and procedural. Ideally, the program contains the following sections: statement of the problem, goals and objectives of the research, object and subject of research, interpretation of basic concepts, research methods, research plan.

The relationship between the problem and the problem situation depends on the type of research, on the scale and depth of the sociological study of the object. Determining the object of empirical research involves obtaining spatio-temporal and qualitative-quantitative indicators. In a real-life object, a property is identified, defined as its side, which is determined by the nature of the problem, thereby denoting the subject of research. Subject means the boundaries within which a particular object is studied in a given case. Next, you need to set the goals and objectives of the study.

Target focuses on the end result. Goals can be theoretical and applied. Theoretical – give a description or explanation of a social program. Implementation theoretical goal leads to an increase in scientific knowledge. Applied goals are aimed at developing practical recommendations for further scientific development.

Tasks– individual parts, research steps that contribute to achieving the goal. Setting goals means, to some extent, a plan of action to achieve a goal. Objectives formulate questions that must be answered to achieve the goal. Tasks can be basic or private. Fundamentals are a means of addressing the main research questions. Particulars - for testing side hypotheses, solving some methodological issues.

In order to use a unified conceptual apparatus, the sociological research program defines basic concepts, their empirical interpretation and operationalization, during which the elements of the basic concept are identified according to strictly specified criteria that reflect the qualitative aspects of the research subjects.

The entire process of logical analysis comes down to the translation of theoretical, abstract concepts into operational ones, with the help of which tools for collecting empirical data are compiled.

An important place in the development of a research program is occupied by the formulation of hypotheses, which are specified as its main methodological tool.

The hypothesis gives the direction of the research, influences the choice of research methods and the formulation of questions.

The study must confirm, reject, or adjust the hypothesis.

Several types of hypotheses can be distinguished:

1) main and output;

2) basic and non-core;

3) primary and secondary;

Basic requirements for the formulation of hypotheses. Hypothesis:

1) should not contain concepts that have not received empirical interpretation, otherwise it is unverifiable;

2) should not contradict previously established scientific facts;

3) should be simple;

4) must be verifiable at a given level of theoretical knowledge, methodological equipment and practical research capabilities.

The main difficulty in formulating hypotheses lies in the need to match their goals and objectives of the study, which contain clear and precise concepts.

Empirical research is conducted on a sample population.

The type and method of determining the sample directly depends on the type of study, its goals and hypotheses.

The main requirement for samples in analytical research is representativeness: the ability of the sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general population.

The sampling method is based on two principles: the relationship and interdependence of the qualitative characteristics of the object and the study and on the validity of the conclusions as a whole when considering its part, which in its structure is a micromodel of the whole, i.e. the general population.

After drawing up the research program, the organization of field research begins.

3. Methods of sociological research

Method– the main method of collecting, processing or analyzing data. Technique is a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method. Methodology– a concept that denotes a set of technical techniques associated with this method, including private operations, their sequence and interrelation. Procedure– the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the research.

The main methods used in social empirical research can be identified as follows.

Observation– purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality, during which the researcher gains knowledge regarding the external aspects, states and relationships of the objects that are being studied. The forms and methods of recording observation data can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, film or television camera and other technical means. The peculiarity of observation as a method of collecting information is the ability to analyze diverse impressions about the object under study.

It is possible to record the nature of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, and expressions of emotions. There are two main types of observation: included and non-participated.

The main object of observation is behavior individuals and social groups, and the conditions of their activities.

Experiment– a method whose purpose is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice.

Experimental design and logic include the following procedures:

1) selection of an object used as an experimental and control group;

2) selection of control, factor and neutral characteristics;

3) determination of experimental conditions and creation of an experimental situation;

4) formulating hypotheses and defining tasks;

5) selection of indicators and method of monitoring the progress of the experiment.

Document analysis– one of the widely used and effective methods of collecting primary information.

The purpose of the study is to search for indicators that indicate the presence in a document of a topic that is significant for analysis and reveal the content of textual information. The study of documents allows us to identify the trend and dynamics of changes and development of certain phenomena and processes.

The source of sociological information is usually text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions, decisions, publications, letters, etc.

A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used for the characteristics and specific historical development of the phenomenon or process being studied.

An important feature of information is its aggregated nature, which means correlation with a certain group as a whole.

The selection of information sources depends on the research program, and specific or random sampling methods may be used.

There are:

1) external analysis of documents, in which the circumstances of the occurrence of documents are studied; their historical and social context;

The study of documents is carried out by qualitative (traditional) or formalized qualitative-quantitative analysis (content analysis).

Survey– method of collecting sociological information – provides:

2) registration and statistical processing of the responses received, their theoretical interpretation.

The main types of surveys, depending on the written or oral form of communication with respondents, are questionnaires and interviews. They are based on a set of questions that are offered to respondents and the answers to which constitute an array of primary data. Questions are asked to respondents through a questionnaire or questionnaire.

Interview– a focused conversation, the purpose of which is to obtain answers to the questions provided for by the research program. The advantages of an interview over a questionnaire survey: the ability to take into account the level of culture of the respondent, his attitude to the survey topic and individual problems, expressed intonation, flexibly change the wording of questions taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, and pose the necessary additional questions.

Despite some flexibility, the interview is conducted in accordance with a specific program and research plan, which records all the main questions and options for additional questions.

The following types of interviews can be distinguished:

2) by technique (free and standardized);

3) according to the procedure (intensive, focused).

Questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. There are open questions when respondents express themselves in free form. In a closed questionnaire, all answer options are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures.

When preparing and conducting a sociological survey, there are three main stages.

At the first stage, the theoretical background of the survey is determined:

1) goals and objectives;

2) problem;

3) object and subject;

4) operational definition of the initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators.

During the second stage, the sample is justified and:

1) the general population (those layers and groups of the population to which the survey results are expected to be extended);

2) rules for searching and selecting respondents at the last stage of sampling.

At the third stage, the questionnaire is justified:

2) justification of the questionnaire regarding the capabilities of the population being surveyed as a source of the information sought;

3) standardization of requirements and instructions for questionnaires and interviewers on organizing and conducting a survey, establishing contact with the respondent, and recording responses;

4) providing preconditions for processing the results on a computer;

5) ensuring organizational requirements for the survey.

In specialized surveys, the main source of information is competent persons whose professional or theoretical knowledge life experience allow authoritative conclusions to be drawn.

The participants in such surveys are experts who can give a balanced assessment on issues of interest to the researcher.

Hence, another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is the method of expert assessments.

1. Applied sociology and social practice. Organization and conduct of applied sociological research.

2. Types of applied sociological research.

3. Stages of applied sociological research.

Literature

1. Andreenkov V.V., Kabysha A.V. Structure and process of sociological research // Sociology. - M., 1996.

2: Organization and conduct of specific sociological research // Sociologist’s workbook. - M., 1983.

4. Yadov V.A. Sociological research; methodology, program, methods. - M., 1987.

Topic 2. SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROGRAM

1. general characteristics sociological research programs.

2. Methodological part of the sociological research program.

3. The procedural part of the methodological research program.

Literature

1. Sociological Dictionary. - Mn., 1991.

2. Yadov V.A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods.- M, 1987.

Topic 3. SAMPLING METHOD IN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

1. The concept of general population and sample.

2. Representativeness, efficiency, design and types of sampling.

3. Sampling errors.

Literature

1. Cochran W. Methods of selective research.-M, 1976.

2. Operational sociological research. -Mn., 1997.

3. Paniotto V.I. Quality of sociological information.- Kyiv, 1986.

4. Churilov N.N. Designing a sample sociological study. -Kiev, 1986.

Topic 4. EMPIRICAL METHODS FOR COLLECTING PRIMARY SOCIOLOGICAL INFORMATION

1. General characteristics of empirical methods of cognition.

2. Analysis of documents.

3. Survey methods for collecting primary sociological information.

4. Observation and experiment in sociological research.

Literature

1. Andreenkov VT. Methods of data collection and analysis // Sociology / Ed. ed. G.V. Osipova. -M., 1996.

2. Yadov V.A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods. -M., 1987.

Topic 5. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS FOR PROCESSING SOCIOLOGICAL DATA. CONSTRUCTION OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Statistical processing and analysis of primary sociological data.

2. Qualitative analysis sociological data.

Literature

1. Argunova K.D. Qualitative regression analysis in sociology. -M., 1990.

2. Interpretation and analysis of data in sociological research.-M, 1987.

3. Mathematical methods of analysis and interpretation of sociological data. - M., 1989.

4. Statistical methods of information analysis in sociological research.- M, 1979.

5. Typology and classification in sociological research. -M., 1982.

6. Factor, descriptive and cluster analysis. -M., 1989.

Topic 6. SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL TECHNOLOGY

1. Social technologies and management.

2. The role of social technologies in increasing the efficiency of social organization.

3. Social technologies and political life.

Literature

1. Babosov E.M. Sociology of management. - Mn., 2000.

2. Ivanov V.N. Social technologies in the modern world. - M., 1996.

3. Meskon M., Albert M., Khedouri F. Fundamentals of Management. - M., 1992.

3.2.4. Forms of seminar classes and their methodological support

Seminar classes got their name from the Latin word “zettapit”, which means a nursery, or seating students and conducting a conversation (dispute) on given topic. Seminars (conversations, debates) appeared in the ancient world and represented the main form of education. Their essence consisted in messages from students with comments and conclusions from teachers.

In modern higher education, a seminar, along with a lecture, has become one of the main forms of practical acquisition of knowledge both in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. It is intended for in-depth study subject at active use creative abilities of the student himself. The goals and objectives of seminar classes are very diverse. They stimulate:

Skill development professional speech;

Development independent thinking;

Ability to argue and substantiate your point of view;

Study and analysis of primary sources;

Studying additional literature on the topic being studied;

A critical attitude towards your own performance and the performance of your fellow students;

Ability to compare data different sources and summarize them;

Ability to connect theoretical concepts with practical situations;

Developing strong professional beliefs.

A seminar only fulfills its cognitive and educational functions when there is a lively, interested discussion, sometimes leading to heated, heated debate on the issues formulated in the seminar plan. And this is only possible provided that all students, or at least most of them, have seriously studied the recommended literature, that they clearly see the theoretical and practical significance issues discussed at the seminar. To maintain the creative intensity of student thought, it is also important that the seminars are conducted not according to the established template, but in one way or another differ from each other. The possibilities for this are very wide.

In the practice of teaching social sciences in universities, there have been approximately 15 more or less different forms of seminar classes, these include:

Question and answer system;

An extensive conversation based on the seminar lesson plan communicated to students in advance;

Oral presentations students followed by their discussion;

Discussion of written essays prepared in advance by individual students;

Theoretical conference in a group or on a stream;

Seminar-debate;

Seminar press conference;

Commented reading of primary sources;

Solving problems and exercises;

Working with so-called teaching and examining machines;

Seminar on materials from sociological research conducted by students under the guidance of a teacher;

Workshop on production;

Seminar-excursion to museums or memorable places;

Test (written) work on individual questions, topics, followed by discussion;

Seminar-colloquium.

Each of these forms has both its advantages and disadvantages.

Let us briefly characterize each of these forms. The question-answer system comes down to a conversation between the teacher and one student, then another. In this case, questions are asked not to the whole group, but to one student with whom the conversation is being conducted. If the student makes inaccuracies or narrowness of the answer, the teacher himself corrects and supplements it. As a result, the majority of students remain passive and often engage in extraneous matters or feverishly leafing through your notes or textbook while waiting for your turn in dialogue with the teacher.

The most common form of conducting seminar classes is an extended conversation. This form involves the preparation of all students on the issues of the seminar, their presentations and the teacher’s conclusion on individual issues of the seminar and the seminar as a whole. An extensive conversation allows you to involve a maximum of students in the discussion of the questions posed, activate their attention, and use basic and additional means.

The format of the seminar in the form of an extended conversation does not exclude the possibility of hearing messages from individual students who have received preliminary assignments from the teacher on certain issues of the topic. But in all these cases, such messages do not act as a basis for discussion, but only as an addition to the discussion of the issues facing the plan.

The situation is different in the next form of seminars - in the system of reports. Here, student reports and discussions form the basis of the entire seminar. The reporting system includes a wide variety of options. Sometimes the teacher himself or at the request of the students appoints speakers, as well as co-speakers and opponents. Sometimes the teacher appoints, on the contrary, only opponents for each issue of the plan or for some of them. During the discussion, the opponent speaks with an analysis of the students’ speeches, notes incorrect positions and inaccuracies, supplements the material, and sums up the discussion. In order to cope with this task, he must prepare especially carefully on the relevant issue of the topic. As we can see, the essence of the matter is to instruct individual students from time to time to lead the discussion of a particular issue at the seminar and summarize the results, draw conclusions about its pros and cons. This makes it possible to especially effectively develop teaching skills in students.

Considering an extended conversation and a system of reports as relatively independent forms of conducting seminars, it should be emphasized that they have much in common. And here and there - the main thing in

creative discussion of relevant issues. True, in the first case the group prepares completely, and in the second, the initiative is given to the speakers. Experience shows that with a report system it is very difficult to ensure that the entire group is prepared on the issues that are distributed as a report. From here two methodological conclusions follow: 1) using the advantages of each of the forms, reverse Special attention to overcome their inherent weaknesses; 2) alternate one or another form in class, avoiding getting carried away by one of them.

The following form conducting seminar classes is the discussion of abstracts. The abstract differs from ordinary reports by greater independence, deepening the elements of one’s own research, creative search, and scientific character. It would be good if the abstract was previously read before the seminar by the rest of the students, but technically this is difficult to ensure. Therefore, the author often reproduces his abstract as an oral communication.

The abstract method helps students develop research skills, activates seminar classes in sociology, and allows them to connect the study of this discipline with major sciences and production, which is ensured by choosing the appropriate topic for abstracts.

A seminar in the form of a theoretical conference is a form very close to seminars at which reports and abstracts are discussed. Its difference lies, on the one hand, in more thorough preparation, and on the other hand, in the fact that it is often carried out not with one group, but with several or even with a whole stream. The theme of the conference is not necessarily taken from the general plan of the seminars. More often it is put as such after studying a large topic or after studying the entire course of a given discipline.

A seminar-debate as one of the forms of classes conducted in a group or on a course is recommended by many teachers. The content of the issues brought up for discussion at such a seminar may be problems that have been or are being discussed in our scientific literature. In this case, one speaker is assigned to present one of the existing points of view, and the other - another. It is very important to organize the debate so that students can imagine both the strengths and weaknesses of the disputing parties. If in science the results of the discussion have already been summed up and one of the points of view has become generally accepted, the teacher must make sure that it is recorded at the seminar.

A seminar in the form of a press conference consists of the teacher instructing several students to prepare reports on 190

each point of the seminar plan. At the next lesson, after a short introduction, the head of the seminar presents a word of his choice for the report to one of the students preparing. The report lasts 10-12 minutes. Students should then ask the presenter their questions. Questions and answers to them constitute central part seminar. Hence its name: seminar press conference. It is understood that in order to formulate a question, the student must have certain knowledge on the topic and first study the relevant literature. The nature of his question is largely determined by the depth of his independent work. The speaker answers questions first. If the seminar leader considers these answers to be insufficient, he will provide the opportunity for other students to express their opinions. If necessary, the teacher supplements what has been said and makes the necessary adjustments in the final part of the seminar.

Commented reading of primary sources is a type of seminar in which, on behalf of the teacher, one of the students reads aloud a particular work, and then explains how he understood what he read. Other students make corrections and additions to what has been said. Then another student reads the next passage, discusses what has been read again, and so on.

Solving test problems and exercises as a seminar activity is very useful for the development of active thinking students. If until recently problem solving was practiced only in the field of natural sciences, then in recent years it has also begun to be used in the teaching of social sciences: philosophy, political science, sociology, economic theory.

Working with teaching and testing machines helps consolidate knowledge and develop skills in working with computer equipment. The Internet is now widely used here. Often this form of seminar classes is defined as programmed training.

Seminars based on materials from specific sociological research. Of great interest and high activity among students is the presentation for discussion of the results of specific sociological research carried out by the students themselves under the guidance of a teacher, for example, on the issue of the growth of social activity of young people in universities, enterprises, etc. The use of materials from such research in seminars allows students, when studying sociology, to better feel its practical significance and to more fully connect theoretical principles with practice. And all this contributes to a significant revitalization of seminars and makes them more effective.

One of the forms of conducting a seminar is a lesson directly in production (industrial enterprise, research institute, company). Such seminars are rarely practiced, as they require a lot of time to prepare. At the same time, conducting them has a significant effect, especially in terms of introducing students to their future work.

Written works make it possible to provide frontal control to students, teach them to clearly formulate their thoughts, and help them find out what exactly they have not understood enough. Shapes and volume written works are different. Sometimes they are carried out without warning students, based on previously covered material. More often - on the topic planned for this seminar or one of its questions. To avoid students borrowing from each other the material presented in the test, some teachers give each student their own question, typing them in advance. Some teachers devote both hours of the seminar to written work, others - one hour or even half an hour, taking on a narrow issue, and devote the rest of the time to a detailed conversation according to the seminar plan. Long-term practice of conducting written work shows that after it, students begin to prepare much better for classes. As a result, the work of the seminars is intensified, and their effectiveness increases sharply. Of course, you cannot overuse written work; it is advisable to recommend doing written work 1-2 times a semester. Upon completion of the written work, the seminar continues in the form of an extended conversation on the same issues. As for the evaluation of written work, the results are announced at the next seminar. Since checking written work requires additional time from the teacher, it can be included in the workload called “controlled” independent work» students.

Seminar-colloquium. Colloquium, i.e. interviews with students are aimed at finding out the depth of their knowledge. In some cases it is carried out by additional topics, which are not provided for by the program, but arouse the interest of one or another part of the students. In other cases we're talking about about additional classes on some complex topics of the course that were not fully mastered by the group. Finally, most often colloquiums are held with the aim of clarifying the knowledge of students who, for one reason or another, did not speak at the last several seminars or missed them. In this case, the colloquium looks like a kind of test on the topics covered.

With all the abundance of forms of seminar classes, the main and most common among them remain an extensive conversation and a reporting system. As for the rest, they are either variations of these two, or some additions to them, which eliminates the educational process from some of its conventionality.

Each of the forms considered, as already noted, has its positive and negative sides. Therefore, you should vary the forms of seminars, gradually complicating them in the process of studying the course. Considering it expedient to use already established forms of seminars, it is necessary to emphasize the need to constantly search for new forms, conduct pedagogical experiments and wide exchange of experience in pedagogical activities.

From a methodological point of view, it is important for both the teacher and the student to know not only the forms of conducting seminar classes, but also the criteria for assessing their quality. There are several versions of such criteria in the methodological literature. Let us refer to the one proposed by S. Kiselgof and his fellow authors. From the point of view of these researchers, the criteria for assessing the quality of a seminar session can be: 1) the seminar plan; 2) list of recommended literature; 3) organization of a seminar; 4) student activity; 5) style of conducting the seminar; 6) the teacher’s preparedness and skill; 7) the teacher’s attitude towards students; 8) students’ attitude towards the teacher and the subject being studied.

Let's look at these points in more detail.

The seminar plan is determined by the topic to be studied and the program of the course being studied. The plan for a sociology seminar is drawn up by the teacher and depends entirely on his experience and skill. At the same time there are various situations: either the lecturer himself conducts the seminars, or he only gives lectures, and the teacher follows him, or the lecturer gives lectures and conducts seminars in separate groups stream, and in other groups of the same stream the teacher conducts classes.

It is clear that in all these cases there is a need for clear consistency between lecture and seminar topics; between topics that are studied in one group and in parallel ones; it is necessary to identify the number of questions, forms of conducting classes and monitoring classes. All these points are determined by the methodology for preparing the seminar. In this case, it is necessary to coordinate both the creative activity of the teacher (drawing up a seminar plan, which can be spare or extensive, theorized or mundane, consistent with the profile of the specialty or abstracted from it, etc.), and the organizing activity

department, which must carry out diverse methodological work, in particular, approve the work plans of each teacher in order to avoid any arbitrariness in teaching activities.

The quality of recommended literature is determined by the fact that its list can be either too narrow or too broad; it may include either outdated works or those that are not yet in the university library. Therefore, a clear design of the list of recommended literature is an important methodological requirement for preparing a seminar, especially when studying sociology.

Organizing a seminar is a multifaceted criterion. This reflects the degree of readiness of both students and teacher. The organization can be clear, harmonious, or it can be very chaotic. The timing of the seminar must be strictly scheduled and fully correspond to the purpose of the lesson. The teacher should not abuse his right to intrude on students’ answers; he should skillfully direct the course of the discussion, clearly regulating the

This is discussion time. Only as a result of this coordinated work

The teacher and students manage to fully analyze all aspects of the problem under consideration.

The activity of students is manifested both in their answers and in their attitude to the answers of their friends, to the comments and additions of the teacher, in recording important provisions of the issues under consideration in the form of special notes, etc.

The style of the seminar is characterized by such qualities as high interest from the audience, their lively and interested participation in the discussion of issues, or, conversely, boredom, routine, formalism, and lack of any interest on the part of students.

Next point also reflects the professional skill of the teacher, his theoretical and psychological readiness for the seminar. Here the difference between a young, novice teacher and a teacher who already has extensive experience is especially noticeable. teaching activities.

A teacher, having a number of professional qualities, is at the same time an individual with a set of his own psychological qualities. The psychological qualities of a teacher must correspond to his profession. Measurement is especially valued here, and measure in everything: both in severity and in liberalism. The teacher’s cynicism and arrogance towards students, especially their shortcomings, indifference to the audience and teaching activities, and his professional ethics do not pass here.

How the response is formed is the attitude of students towards the teacher. This attitude can be put on a scale: respectful, indifferent, critical, hostile.

All forms of seminar classes can be used in the study of sociology as a general discipline. Considering the fact that sociology is clearly divided into two parts - theoretical and applied - there are several options for determining the topics of seminar classes and the strategy for their implementation, which is determined either by the department or the teacher himself. This strategy is determined by the number of hours allocated to seminar classes in sociology, and the methodological guidelines developed at the department.

First option. The sociology course is entirely based on consideration of issues of theoretical sociology. Topics in applied sociology are omitted. In this case, the seminars cover either the same topics as the lectures, or some additional issues of theoretical sociology.

Second option. The topics of a general sociology course include at least one lecture on applied sociology (usually at the end of the course). And then this topic is given one lecture and one seminar lesson. The remaining topics of the seminars are devoted, as in the first version, to issues of theoretical sociology.

Third option. Themes lecture material are completely devoted to theoretical sociology (18-20 hours), and the topics of the seminars are completely (8-10 hours) devoted to the problems of applied sociology.

Which of these options is the most productive? It's difficult to answer this question. Everything will depend on the decision of the department, and on the preparedness of the teacher and his subjective aspirations, and on the interests of the students, and on the profile of the specialty.

There is an opinion among sociology teachers that the applied part of sociology is less interesting for non-sociology students. Therefore, both in lectures and in seminars as part of the general course of this discipline more attention is devoted specifically to the problems of theoretical sociology.

However, experience shows that students themselves pay the greatest attention to the topics of applied sociology. And although they understand that they themselves will never professionally engage in applied sociological research, their intuition tells them the importance of this particular material. After all, in no other course do they study in such detail the technology of research activities, the criteria for the reliability of the information obtained, and the logic of their generalization and analysis. And all this is necessary

useful not only to a professional sociologist who obtains sociological information, but also to any user of this information, at least in order to use it correctly. So the third option, from those listed above, could be recommended as a base one, using the others as unique alternatives.

More wide use within the framework of seminar classes on problems of applied sociology, it allows you to diversify their implementation, use a whole arsenal of practical knowledge and exercises performed both at home and during the seminar itself, which helps to enhance the independent work of students, including them in the real process of sociological research of problems public life, helps to increase their interest in this discipline itself.

3.3. INDEPENDENT WORK OF STUDENTS

3.3.1. Independent work of students as a form of study at a university

Independent work of students is one of the most important forms educational process in higher education, while its importance has a steady tendency to increase. This is explained by the fact that in the complex of requirements for a specialist with higher education, more and more specific gravity takes the ability to independently navigate the flow of information, the ability to self-educate and accumulate knowledge. In the process of independent work, a person’s abilities are revealed, his qualities are formed as creative personality Therefore, the ability to independently obtain and use information is one of the most valuable qualities of a modern specialist.

The formation of independence skills and other qualities of a future specialist is determined not only by the goals and objectives of higher education. In many ways, it is determined by the very socio-psychological nature of a person, his activity, the desire for activity, for self-realization through creative work. This premise is based on the idea of the active nature of man.

The peculiarity of university education is to develop creative potential student. The entire teaching methodology at the university is aimed at activating this potential, revealing the creative potential of each student. That is why independent

student work at university becomes important integral part learning process, university didactics.

Very often this type of training is carried out spontaneously, but it has its own structure and its own methodological methods of organization and improvement.

The theory of student independent work involves determining the essence of this type of work, analyzing its structure and type differences.

It should be noted that different authors consider the essence of independent work in different ways. Some of them understand independent work as a form of organizing the learning process, others believe that independent work is a means of learning, others believe that this is a special background for university education, complementing classroom lessons, etc. For example, R. Mikelsontud understands the independent work as students completing tasks under the supervision of a teacher, but without his help; B. Esipov - as work without the direct participation of the teacher, but according to his instructions in the time specially provided for this. There are works in which, when determining the essence of students’ independent work, the lack of teacher instruction is emphasized as its important feature. P. Pidkasisty considers this work as a means of involving students in independent cognitive activity. A. Lyndin - as the presence of a situation in which the student is able to demonstrate his own creative abilities, etc.

All these definitions are partially correct and their combination allows us to formulate general idea about independent work of students. In this case, two situations can be distinguished. The first is that the student strives to independently find answers (or solutions) to the questions (tasks) that the teacher has posed to him. The second situation involves a broader manifestation of the student’s creative abilities, when he himself creates tasks and problems with a further search for their solutions. The first situation most often manifests itself during lectures and seminars, the second - in the process of preparation scientific works, preparation of course and diploma projects. It is clear that the teacher’s participation here will manifest itself in different ways.

So, a student’s independent work is a manifestation of his creative abilities when mastering the material, filling it out and using it in practical situations.

This process has both objective methodological foundations for its organization and subjective forms of manifestation. That is why it has, on the one hand, its own methods and forms of organization.

tion, and on the other hand, has a spontaneous individual character. The presence of this side of independent work leads some theorists to argue that the presence of a teacher in it should be kept to a minimum. However, this minimization does not relieve the teacher of the need to organize and control the progress of students’ independent studies, which is especially visible in cases where it is necessary to consider specific types of manifestations of independent work.

Analyzing and summarizing the available pedagogical literature approaches to considering the essence of students’ independent work, it is possible to identify such features that allow us to classify the types of this work. These types are distinguished: by the nature of the tasks being solved, by the sources of information, by the role of the teacher, by the type of educational and cognitive activity of students, by the place of execution, by the content of the tasks. Let's look at these signs in more detail.

1. The main goals of students’ independent work are
are:

Acquiring new knowledge;

Deepening previously acquired knowledge;

Generalization, systematization and practical use knowledge;

Formation of practical skills;

Self-control in the process of acquiring knowledge and developing skills to use it when solving problems practical problems;

Development of students' attention, memory, methods logical thinking, civic qualities, etc.

2. By the nature of educational and cognitive activity of independent
The work can be divided into:

Reproductive (learning of educational material);

Productive (independent acquisition of new knowledge and its use in solving specific problems and situations).

3. Based on the method of execution, independent work is divided
for classroom and extracurricular activities.

In-class independent work of students is determined by the curriculum and program of the academic discipline, regulated by the academic schedule, conducted under the direct supervision of the teacher and included in lectures, seminars, laboratory classes, colloquiums, various kinds practitioner, etc.

Extracurricular independent work is different kinds educational, industrial, research and self-education-198

vocal activity. It is divided into mandatory and additional.

Mandatory extracurricular work carried out in the form:

Completing assignments and exercises in preparation for seminars and tests;

Listening to audio materials;

Watching video materials;

Work with reference books (dictionaries, reference books, encyclopedias);

Reading and taking notes of basic literature;

Doing individual homework;

Completing coursework and theses;

Preparations for practice.

Additional extracurricular work is associated with a deep and comprehensive study of the subject, improving the student’s intelligence and includes:

Solving homework of a creative nature;

Carrying out research work;

Studying additional scientific, popular science and educational literature;

Preparation for Olympiads, conferences, etc.

4. According to the participation of the teacher in the implementation of independent work of students, it is divided into:

Work under the guidance of a teacher, but without his direct intervention (for example, when conducting tests);

Work under the indirect guidance of a teacher (through completing his assignments);

Completely independent work (satisfying your personal cognitive interests without any participation from the teacher).

The teacher has a central place in the university education system, since he carries out state goals training, improvement depends on its activities scientific organization educational process and educational work.

The teacher’s task is to provide conditions for independent acquisition of knowledge from various sources ( printed word, spoken word, during an experiment, etc.). This requires a certain material base and corresponding methodological support.

The main forms of independent work when studying sociology are: participation in lectures and seminars, preparation of abstracts and scientific papers.

A lecture is one of the opportunities to enhance student’s independent work. This is manifested in the fact that, following the logic of presentation of the material at the lecture, the student learns to comprehend the main provisions of sociology, independently identifies the main ideas, takes notes on the material presented, often translating it into a system of signs that he understands, while simultaneously comprehending and remembering the information received.

Perceiving a lecture and recording it is a complex process that requires constant attention and willpower from the student to assimilate the lecturer’s reasoning, think about what is said, and concisely present the material on paper in a form that is easy to understand. That is, the student’s independent work during the lecture is manifested mainly

thinking of new information and its brief rational recording. Insufficiently understood parts of the lecture are noted by the student in the margins of the notes. At the end of the lecture, he can ask a question and make clarifications in his notes.

Applied sociological research (ASR) is the direct collection, processing and analysis of primary sociological information. Its main goal is to obtain facts that form the empirical basis of sociology or have independent applied significance. Applied sociological research is always carried out according to certain rules. Stages conducting PSI.

1. Preliminary: drawing up a program and schedule for PSI planning research documents.

2. Field: preparation of the research group, preparation of the research field, aerobatics, field research.

3. Organizing, processing and analysis of the information received.

4. Drawing up final documents that reflect the results of the PSI and methods for obtaining them.

Types of sociological research. Depending on the purposes of PSI, they are divided into reconnaissance, descriptive and analytical.

Reconnaissance study (pilot) used as a preliminary stage of large-scale research. It covers small survey populations and is based on a simplified program and methodology. A type of pilot study is an express survey (the so-called public opinion survey).

Descriptive research used in the case of studying a large community of people with diverse characteristics. Such research is carried out according to a developed program and on the basis of methodologically tested tools.

Analytical research- the most profound type of sociological analysis, which aims, in addition to describing the phenomenon being studied, to also identify the reasons underlying it.

Based on the frequency of studies conducted, point and repeat types are divided into:

§ spot study (one-time) provides information about the state of the object of analysis, about quantitative characteristics phenomenon or process at the time of its study;

§ re-study carried out sequentially at certain intervals, based on a single program and tools, gives an idea of the dynamics of the object being studied;

§ panel study- a special type of repetition. A panel study involves studying the same group of people repeatedly at specified intervals. Continuous and prompt receipt of data on phenomena and processes occurring in society is called social monitoring.

The study of social processes using the methods of applied sociology begins with the development of a research program. The effectiveness of all subsequent work of the sociologist depends on the quality of the program and its scientific level.

PSI program- This theoretical document, setting out the methodological, methodological and organizational principles, techniques, and means of studying a specific social object. The requirements for the PSI object are as follows:

1. clear identification of the phenomenon according to the following parameters - professional (industry) affiliation, spatial limitation, functional focus;

2. a certain time limitation;

3. the possibility of it quantitative measurements;

PSI subject - These are those aspects (properties, relationships) of the object of study that express the problem under study in the most complete form and are subject to study.

Within the same object of study there may be several objects of study.

For example, within a specific school team(object of research) the subject of research can be: student discipline, socio-psychological microclimate in classes, socio-political activity of schoolchildren, their civic positions and a number of other characteristics. It happens differently: the object of research is formulated more narrowly - the leisure time of teenagers living in a given locality. Then the subject of the study will be: the tendency of adolescents to bad habits (smoking, drunkenness, drug addiction), sexual promiscuity of schoolchildren and other phenomena associated with the behavior of representatives of this group. social group during leisure time. There may be cases when the object and subject of research coincide. For example, the object of study is sports teams participating in a competition. The subject of study is everyone essential aspects their activities related to sports.

Clarification of the boundaries of the object and, to a certain extent, the subject of research is carried out in parallel with the calculation (justification) of the research sample. With its help, the scale (volume) of the work of the sociological group is determined in advance in order to minimize the costs of conducting research.

Population- this is a set (set) of all elements of research objects, limited by the natural territorial time frame and research program, and sample population - this is a part of the elements, extracted in a certain way from the whole and intended for direct study (observation). The research sample, as part of the research object, should be similar to the object as a whole in terms of basic socio-demographic or other significant characteristics. A sample (or sample population) is a reduced copy (model) of the research object (general population). Sociologists believe that, for example, there is no need, when studying the attitude of the population of a particular city to the problems under study, to interview all residents of this locality. It is enough to survey a part, but this part must be similar to the whole (in terms of gender, age, education, social status and other parameters important for the problem being studied). The sampling frame uses population census data, static reports, lists of employees of the organization being surveyed, house books, electoral lists, personnel department files and other documents that a sociologist can access.

Types samples in applied sociological research:

1. Empirical- used in the practice of small-scale studies.

It is divided into types: a) spontaneous sampling (selection of the “first person you meet”); b) quota sampling (a “model” is created that proportionally reproduces the general population according to the main, most significant characteristics).

2. Probabilistic(random selection) - methods of probability theory are used.

Main types of probability sampling:

a) simple probability sampling (simple random selection) - when, for example, cards with respondents’ numbers are selected according to the “lot” principle;

b) systematic probability sampling (for example, every fifth or hundredth);

c) serial (nesting) - when nests are selected (workshops, teams, student groups, other divisions of the general population), sometimes polar in terms of the qualities being studied (advanced - lagging behind, smokers - non-smokers, etc.).

Samples can be regionalized if the selection is preceded by a division of the general population into parts (for example, schools or hospitals in an area can be divided into urban and rural, “prosperous” and “disadvantaged”). Sometimes multi-stage samples are selected (at the first stage - selection, for example, by districts, at the second - by enterprises, at the third - by workshops, sections). A special type of multi-stage sampling is multi-phase selection, when a subsample of a smaller size is separated from the selected sample.

The main requirement for any sample is its representativeness, i.e., the ability of a sample population to reflect the characteristics of the general population. Any sample deviates to a greater or lesser extent from the population. The degree of this deviation is usually called sampling error.

There are two types of errors:

1. random errors - associated with statistical errors (depending on the dynamics of the characteristics under study) and unforeseen violations of the information collection procedure (procedural errors made during the registration of characteristics);

2. systematic errors - arising due to incomplete objectivity of the sample of the general population (lack of

3. information about the general population, selection of the most “convenient” elements of the general population for research), as well as due to the inconsistency of the sample with the goals and objectives of the study.

There is the following rough estimate of the results sample survey. Increased reliability of the study allows a sampling error of up to 3%, ordinary - up to 3-10% ( confidence interval distributions at the level of 0.03-0.1), approximate - from 10 to 20%, approximate - from 20 to 40%, and estimated - more than 40%.

The representativeness of the sample is assessed based on preliminary calculations and analysis of possible errors. There are mathematical formulas for calculating the maximum sampling error. These formulas, based on the law of large numbers, are applicable, as a rule, only when major studies over large areas, covering the population of a country or region.

When conducting sociological research in small groups, the sample is determined primarily by empirical methods in the process of collecting information (surveys are conducted until stable results are obtained). When studying, for example, the problems of schoolchildren, taking into account the comparative homogeneity of observation units, the sample calculation can be carried out during the period of collecting information simultaneously with the approval of research objects. So, if you survey all high school students at the same school and compare the results for each class separately, you can be sure that the distribution of answers differs little. This means that one could limit oneself to a survey of one or two or three classes (if the purpose and objectives of the study allow).

The representativeness of the sample can be determined in another way. First interview the expected number of respondents (for example, 50% of the total). Then the collected array of questionnaires is divided into two parts according to a statistically random principle. Having processed each part separately and found that the discrepancy in answers is insignificant, we can come to the conclusion that it is possible to reduce the sample size by half in subsequent studies.

Other methods are also used. For example, different questionnaires used in one study include 2-3 blocks of the same (control) questions.

Then, starting, say, with the first questionnaire, gradually after each new survey they reduce the sample size, paying attention to the degree of distortion of answers according to control questions. They should be insignificant, within acceptable limits.

These and other similar techniques are imperfect, but they help the future sociologist gain some experience in checking the representativeness of the collected information.

Purpose and objectives of the study

The purpose of the research is the final result of scientific research.

Purpose sociological research may be the acquisition of new knowledge about the object of research, its structure, and interaction with other objects. The purpose of the research is often to forecast the main directions of development of the phenomena or processes being studied.

Often in reports on sociological research one can find incorrect definitions of the purpose of the study, for example, such as: “Study of the state of discipline in the work collective” or “Study of the causes of staff turnover.” These examples outline the objectives of the study rather than its purpose. The goal of applied research will not be the research process itself, but what follows it. In other words, the statement of purpose should answer the question: “Why is the research being conducted, what benefits are expected to be obtained after its completion?” The goal is specified by the research objectives.

For example, when studying value orientations students, the purpose of the study may be: to determine the conditions and factors for creating a favorable social and educational space at the university that actively promotes the formation of students' civic position, which determines their attitude to current events, understanding their place in society; develop proposals for assessing the work of personnel responsible for conducting educational work.

Tasksresearch- these are the actions that are planned to be performed to achieve the goal; these are a kind of steps that you need to go through in order to reach final result. “Study...”, “compose...”, “analyze...” - these words often begin the formulation of research objectives.

If the purpose of the study is expressed in one or several sentences, then the tasks are often set out on dozens of pages; there can be many of them within the framework of one study.

Research objectives are of various types: basic (main, most significant) and non-basic (particular, derivative, additional). The first include those that are directly aimed at achieving the goal of the study. The purpose of the second is to specify and clarify the main tasks. Obtaining side, secondary conclusions.

For example, when studying the value orientations of students, the research objectives may be:

To find out the hierarchy of the main value orientations of modern youth,

Find out which social institutions, in the opinion of young people themselves, are fundamental in the formation of a civic position before entering a university. Find out what social institutions structural units and public organizations of the university are fundamental in the formation of a civic position while studying at a university, and also to determine whether there is a relationship between the presence of a formed own position and the level of trust in various social institutions and structures of the university (administrator’s office, dean’s offices, teaching staff, public associations (Belarusian Republican Youth Union, trade unions, etc.), curators, psychological service workers, ideological and educational service workers, etc.).

Research objectives in the process of their development must be consistent (coordinated) with hypotheses.

Research hypotheses

Hypothesesresearch- this is an informed assumption about the structure of social objects, the mechanism of their internal dynamics, interaction with external factors or other objects, as well as trends and main directions (prospects) of development. In essence, research is testing a hypothesis. Hypotheses can be classified:

§ according to the degree of generality of assumptions - hypotheses-foundations and hypotheses-consequences;

§ according to the degree of development and validity - primary and secondary;

§ from the point of view of research objectives - basic and non-basic.
Requirements for formulated hypotheses:

§ hypotheses must correspond to the goals and objectives of the study;

§ rely on known sociological theories, the truth of which has been proven;

§ do not contradict proven, scientifically proven empirical facts;

§ be based on representative information;

§ be tested by methods and means that do not go beyond the capabilities of a sociological laboratory.

For example, when studying the value orientations of students, the research hypothesis may be: a preliminary analysis of previously conducted local sociological studies allows us to make an assumption: the reason is the weak motivation for personality formation modern student with fundamental values lies in the insufficient ideological and educational work of the teaching staff and structural divisions.