Great chemists. In 2 volumes. T. I. Manolov Kaloyan

JOSEPH PRIESTLEY (1733–1804)

JOSEPH PRIESTLEY

Miss Parkes' house - Belok, like every old English house, had not only its own traditions, but also relics that were displayed in the spacious hall. As a rule, everyone's attention was attracted by a small glass cabinet: behind the glass, on dark velvet, lay a large lens. When they saw her, guests were often perplexed, because they knew that the mistress of the house was never interested in natural sciences. However, as soon as someone's gaze inadvertently fell on the lens, Miss Parkes settled comfortably in her chair and began to talk. And she really was a good storyteller, and besides, it gave pleasure to her friends.

This lens was the property of Joseph Priestley, she solemnly announced. - I hope you know that I his great-great-granddaughter.

“Delightful,” was all those present could respond, because Miss Parkes immediately took the initiative into her own hands:

Joseph Priestley was a clergyman, but he also had great services to science. For more than forty years he served her faithfully and contributed greatly to her development. Priestley is a philosopher, Priestley is a theologian, Priestley is a writer... But his name forever remained associated with chemistry. He discovered not only oxygen, but also obtained and studied a number of other gases. Among them are sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, ammonia, carbon dioxide... Priestley was one of the most prominent representatives of pneumatic chemistry of the second half of the 18th century.

Pneumatic chemistry was the name given to the science that studied gases. They say that the first associates of this science - Johann Baptist van Helmont and Robert Boyle - became interested in gases by accident. But later the study of gases was associated with the phlogiston theory. Experiments to obtain a gas with the properties of phlogiston, although they did not give the desired results, nevertheless led to the discovery and contributed to the study of many gaseous substances. It was found that air is a complex mixture, and not a simple substance. The combustion process was also clarified. Discoveries in the field of pneumatic chemistry allowed Lavoisier to lay the foundations of chemical science.

Your knowledge is amazing, Miss Parkes,” the elderly lady managed to interject, looking at Miss Parkes with affection.

“I’m not a scientist,” answered the flattered hostess, “but I’m proud that I belong to the family of a great creator of science.” That’s why I dream of devoting my free time to working on a novel about his life.

Of course, we can listen to excerpts from your book today?

Miss Parkes did not take long to ask and began to read.

“Nestled on the road leading from Bristol to Leeds is the small farm of Fieldhead. She brought in an insignificant income, and it was not easy for John Priestley to feed his large family. However, life on the farm was calm and happy. In addition to farming, Priestley Sr. was engaged in wool processing. His songs were often heard in the house - they drowned out the noise of a hand spinning wheel or the rattling of a machine. The children helped to the best of their ability. Joseph was the eldest child in the family. He loved working next to his father, listened to his songs with pleasure and was always amazed at the folk wisdom contained in them. Joseph had an exceptional memory. He remembered all the songs by heart. With amazing ease, he memorized long prayers from the catechism... His devout mother forced her son to repeat prayers incomprehensible to the child and memorize them. His little brother Timothy was still an infant, and Joseph himself was barely four years old. But when he was eight years old, he already knew a lot and now he himself helped Timothy and little Mary memorize prayers. He recited them and forced his brother and sister to repeat after him. The mother was constantly busy with work, and besides, she was expecting a child again.

The father worked hard, but his songs now sounded less often and were often sad. It became increasingly difficult to make ends meet.

Joseph, do you want to visit Aunt Sarah?

The boy's eyes lit up with joy. Aunt Sarah had a big farm. There is always plenty of everything - bread and delicacies... And what biscuits she baked! He will try to bring them to Timothy.

However, this time getting ready to visit his aunt seemed unusual to him. For some reason, they reviewed all his clothes and tried on the best things for Timothy.

Mom, this is my coat! Why are you putting it on Timothy?

Joseph's mother hugged him tenderly.

You'll be living with Aunt Sarah now, Joe. We don't have much money, baby, but Aunt Sarah is rich, she'll buy you new dresses. Your old things will go to Tim.

Something squeezed the boy’s heart, and a lump stuck in his throat. He didn't ask anyone else about anything. Little Joseph was already familiar with bitter need; he understood that in this case he had to submit. It will be better for everyone. Of course, Aunt Sarah was so kind, but mom... Now he will be able to see his mom only when she comes to visit him.

Nine-year-old Joseph's life changed radically. No one forced him to weed the garden or work in the weaving workshop. He only had to study: he went to school in the morning, and after classes there was time for games. He never played at Fieldhead. Now Joseph had his own hobbies - secretly from his aunt he caught beetles, spiders, midges and put them all in bottles. Under his bed there were many bottles in which all sorts of insects were crawling. He usually closed the neck of the bottles tightly, and sometimes filled them with wax. Only Timothy was privy to this secret of little Joseph. When the younger brother came to visit, they locked themselves in Joseph's room and played there for a long time.

Look at this fat crusader! It has been living in a closed bottle for fifteen days.

“It’s a sin, Joseph,” Timothy whispered. - Why do you torture living beings?

I want to see how long they can live in a closed container. Very interesting, Tim. Why do they die, do you know?

Then Joseph began to tell his brother all sorts of interesting stories. He heard them from the teachers, remembered them and told them so well that one could listen to them.

Joseph's aunt was determined to make him a pastor.

Joseph would make a wonderful preacher, she repeatedly told her husband, John Cayley.

Uncle John did not contradict her: her aunt’s decisions were always considered indisputable. But all her plans were confused by the sudden death of her husband. The worries about the household fell entirely on her shoulders, and in order to somehow make life easier, she sent Joseph to theological school. This was in 1745. His aunt took him to Leeds and placed him in the house of Uncle John's old friend, Mr. Black, who worked with his sons at a brewery not far from the city.

Joseph attended school at Betley, where he studied theology, Latin and Greek. Then he studied with Pastor John Kirkby from Heckmondwyke. In addition to philosophy, Kirkby taught him the interpretation of the Bible, which, as the pastor believed, should only be read in Hebrew. Joseph studied the language of the ancient Jews with great diligence. And although the child’s head was bright, he could not boast of health. Soon overwork set in, Joseph began to lose weight, turned pale, and his eyes sunken. Many feared that the fragile child would die from tuberculosis. Aunt Sarah was seriously alarmed and, on the advice of her brother, sent him to a financial school in Lisbon, where Joseph’s uncle lived. The boy studied German, French and Italian, as well as mathematics, at school. At that time, he was already quite educated and could conduct trade correspondence with his uncle.

Over time, Joseph's health improved. This allowed him to devote more time to his studies. He now took lessons from Pastor John Thomas. With his help, Joseph deepened his knowledge of Hebrew and also studied Chaldean, Syriac and Arabic. In the summer of 1751, a theological academy was opened in Deventry, with Caleb Ashworth placed at its head. Joseph decided to devote himself in the future to medicine, but his aunt, with the approval of his uncle from Leeds, persuaded him to enter the academy in Deventry. The time has come for even more hard work. Along with theology, he began studying philosophy. Joseph read John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Isaac Newton, but he especially liked David Hartley’s “Observation of Man,” a work that glorified determinism. Disputes at the academy helped Joseph a lot. Thanks to them, he developed his own point of view on many issues that concerned him. At times he even dared to criticize philosophical teachings. Priestley soon became famous in educated circles. He was often invited to philosophical debates. Priestley's broad knowledge was highly valued by the academy's teachers. They considered him one of the most talented students, and in the fall of 1755, after graduating from the academy, Priestley was invited to take the place of the recently deceased pastor John Meadows in Suffolk.

The parish where Joseph Priestley began to serve was small. Soon after the appearance of the young pastor, a school was opened at the church, but there were no people willing to attend it. The pastor lived modestly, he was constrained by financial circumstances, but he had plenty of time to study science. He began studying literature, linguistics, philosophy, theology, and began writing poetry.

After some time, Priestley moved to Nantwich. The parish there was also small, but this time the congregation happily sent the children to school. Every day, the children of the surrounding cattle breeders regularly came to listen to the stories of the new teacher. (The richer residents, however, preferred to invite him to their home.)

To be a good teacher, you need to know a lot and be able to communicate clearly. He acquired rhetorical skills at the academy, but his knowledge was quite broad only in philosophy, theology and linguistics. He had a vague idea of ​​other sciences. And the young teacher went for advice to Joseph Brireton, with whom he soon became friends. At the same time, he met Eduard Harud. Both of them, in addition to theology, were also involved in the natural sciences: astronomy, physics and others. Following their advice, Priestley once went to London and returned back with a whole stack of books. These books opened up a new world to Joseph, who was thirsty for knowledge. Among the physics textbooks and scientific articles he brought, the most interesting, in his opinion, were the sections on electricity. Priestley went to London again, this time to buy instruments and apparatus for school lessons. He was especially pleased with the acquisition of an electric machine and an air pump. Upon returning to Nantwich, he immediately sent for Harud and Brireton: he wanted to demonstrate to them the amazing properties of electricity.

...Priestley pressed the lever, and the machine's disk began to rotate with a slight noise. After a few minutes, he brought the ends of the two conductors closer together and, although they were not yet touching, a bright spark jumped between them. Brireton looked on in admiration.

This is science! - exclaimed Harud.

Home lightning,” Brireton said. “It’s probably dangerous to touch the car.”

Look what happens to these pieces of paper now,” said Priestley and began to spin the wheel again.

The friends talked for a long time and performed all sorts of experiments with the help of an electric machine. At first it was just fun - experiments for the sake of curiosity. As a rule, Priestley spent all his free time getting acquainted with scientific literature. Over time, this grew into a need for him: to study all his life, to expand his knowledge.

He always worked systematically and deliberately. Like a true Englishman, strictly following his habits, he accurately distributed and accounted for time. In addition to preaching and teaching at school, he studied physics, theology, linguistics, and natural philosophy. There was always a large clock on his desk. As soon as the time allotted for studying one of the sciences expired, he put the book aside and immediately switched to another. Joseph Priestley lived in Nantwich for three years. In 1761 he moved to Warrington to take up a position as a teacher of foreign languages ​​at the theological academy. He dreamed in his heart of occupying the department of natural philosophy, but at that time it was headed by John Holt. At the academy, he had to give lectures on Latin, history and English grammar. With the assumption of a new position, he began to write articles on philosophy and theology.

Joseph had his own special view of religion. He did not agree with the teachings of the Church of England and sharply criticized it. This embittered the English preachers against him, and they did not miss the opportunity to reproach him for “heresy” every time.

A year after Priestley arrived in Warrington, a ceremony was held at the academy at which he was ordained; in the same year, Joseph Priestley married Mary Wilkinson, daughter of Isaac Wilkinson, a millwright from Bersham. The wedding was celebrated in Wrexham, and the young couple settled in a house provided by Priestley's academy. But these events did not change the usual rhythm of the scientist’s life. Now eighteen-year-old Mrs. Priestley took care of the housework, and Joseph continued to study science with the same traditional clock on the table.

F. Hoffman

Benjamin Franklin (I. Asimov, Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 1964)

His research into electricity became ever broader. He collected almost all materials published on the topic of interest to him and, having studied them, conducted new experiments. Priestley established that an electrified body, if brought into a flame, quickly loses its charge; discovered that graphite, coal and glass heated red-hot (though to a lesser extent than metals) are conductors of electricity. He even intended to write a book about electricity, but felt that he was not yet sufficiently prepared for this, and therefore published only his philosophical works. Philosophers praised Priestley's new ideas. His definition of matter, as well as his views on religion and thought, were original and interesting. In 1767, Priestley was elected a member of the Royal Society of London. In addition, he was awarded the title of Doctor of Philosophy. Soon after this, Priestley told Richard Price - also a member of the Royal Society - about his research in the field of electricity. The latter found it necessary to introduce Priestley to John Canton and William Watson, just like Priestley, who were studying problems of electricity. Both scientists recommended that he continue his research work and especially approved the idea of ​​compiling a book, “The History of Electricity.” Benjamin Franklin also found it timely to write the History. This inspired Priestley, and he set to work, although matters at the academy took up most of his time. Moreover, his income - £100 a year - was too little to support his family. True, the wife rented out rooms, but this only added to her troubles: now she had to take care not only of her little daughter Mary, and this immediately affected her already weak health. Living in constant poverty forced Priestley to look for a new place.

In September 1767 the family moved to Leeds, where Priestley again became a preacher. The family's income did not increase much, but he had more free time, and he could devote it to his studies. The family settled for a time in the old house while waiting for the new one, which was being built especially “for Pastor Joseph.” Work on “The History of Electricity” progressed, and soon the first part was ready; Priestley sent it to London for printing. In his book, the scientist gave a complete historical overview of the study of electrical phenomena with a description of various experiments in accessible, precise and colorful language. In the second part, Priestley showed for the first time that the interaction between two oppositely charged poles is inversely proportional to the distance between them. Later, this phenomenon was studied in detail by Charles Augustin de Coulomb, who discovered the famous law that bears his name. Soon, however, Priestley's studies in physics gave way to chemical experiments. But this happened completely unintentionally.

Once Priestley went to preach in Warrington. At the same time, Dr. Thorner from Liverpool was there: he gave a course of lectures on chemistry at the academy. Priestley attended one of them. How poorly we know chemistry, he thought. But there is still so much unknown in this area. We are bad philosophers if we cannot explain even such a seemingly simple process as combustion! Phlogiston... Isn't it possible to get phlogiston?

Priestley began to intensively study issues of chemistry. New, hand-made instruments appeared in his laboratory. At first he carried out experiments to verify the accuracy of the data he had read from existing works in this area, but soon chemistry truly took over all his thoughts. True, tight financial circumstances did not allow him to equip the laboratory as he would have liked, but through hard work he achieved a lot. Priestley was primarily interested in air. He could not understand, for example, why a mouse placed in a sealed vessel dies after a few days. After all, there was air in the vessel. Then why can’t you live in it permanently?

He remembered a curious incident that he witnessed once during his school years. It was on the eve of Easter. Joseph was overtired from reading for a long time and, deciding to rest a little, headed to Uncle Black’s weaving workshop. There he found Mrs. Black and her three daughters at work. Joseph immediately began to help his aunt. This work mentally returned him to his parents' home, to the small Fieldhead farm. In the evening, Uncle Black, in gratitude for his help, promised to show Joseph the brewery. The next day, Joseph's cousins, Stephen and Tate, went there with them. While touring the plant, he kept asking questions. Everything interested him there, he wanted to understand everything. However, the fermentation department seemed most interesting to the future scientist. Huge vats were filled almost to the brim with beer wort. Joseph climbed onto the ladder and bent down to get a better look at the fermenting solution in the vat.

Get off now, don’t breathe over the solution, what the hell, you’ll lose consciousness! - one of the cousins ​​shouted to him.

Surprised, Priestley straightened up and, moving away from the vat, began questioning the brothers.

“I don’t understand a lot myself,” Tate answered him. - Here look. I really don’t know why this happens.

Tate lit a thin sliver of light from the lantern and held it over the solution. To Joseph's surprise, the torch immediately went out.

So. This means that there is different air in the vat. Let me try it too.

Joseph repeated the experiment. The flame went out again. A small cloud of bluish smoke, which appeared the moment the torch went out, hung over the vat. With a slight movement of his palm, Joseph pushed the cloud, and it began to slowly descend.

Look how interesting the air has accumulated in the vats! It is heavier than pure air, and everything in it goes out.

Priestley remembered this incident for a long time. So, there are several types of air - pure, which all living things breathe, and another, which is heavier than pure air. Living beings die in it. That is why, it turns out, he was then forbidden to breathe over the vat.

Priestley lit a candle and brought it into a glass vessel, where he had previously placed the mouse. Then he took the lid and closed the vessel tightly. The candle burned for some time, then went out, and the mouse soon died. Apparently air can become bad when something in it burns, Priestley thought.

A new idea completely took over his thoughts. Why does the air in the earth's atmosphere remain clean? After all, people have been using fire since ancient times. Thousands of living beings live on Earth... He could only give a tentative answer to this question - through logical reasoning. But how to prove it?.. Perhaps, “spoiled” air can be purified, as a result of which it becomes breathable again?

And Priestley began experiments to purify “spoiled” air. He purchased a large bathtub, poured mercury into the bottom and immersed a large glass bell in it - with the hole down. By placing a lit candle under the bell, he received “spoiled” air. I tried to wash it with water and, to my great surprise, noticed that the water absorbs only part of the air, but the remaining air is also unsuitable for life: the mouse dies in it. All attempts to restore the life-giving properties of the gas contained under the bell remained unsuccessful.

Suppose, he reasoned, the animals die. What about the plants? After all, they are also living beings. Priestley placed a small pot of flowers under the bell. He placed a lit candle next to the pot to “spoil” the air. Soon the candle went out. Several hours passed, but the plant did not change at all. Priestley moved the bath along with the flower to the table by the window and left it there until the next day. In the morning, he was surprised to notice that the flower not only did not wilt, but another bud appeared on it. Do plants really clean the air?

Laboratory (drawing from the first volume of “Experiments and Observations on Various Kinds of Air” by J. Priestley).

Worried, Priestley lit a candle and quickly brought it under the bell. The candle continued to burn in the same way as when the bell was filled with clean air. After some time, the candle, of course, went out: the air had “spoiled.”

Priestley repeated his experiment many times to be convinced of the existence of several types of air. At that time, the concept of “gas” was not yet used and scientists called all gases air. The gas that Priestley observed during the fermentation of beer, during the burning of a candle, and during the respiration of animals was carbon dioxide. He learned about it from the works of Joseph Black, who first obtained carbon dioxide from limestone and hydrochloric acid and called it “bound air” because of its ability to be absorbed by milk of lime and other alkalis. Priestley continued Black's research. He proved that carbon dioxide is also absorbed by water, forming a solution that tastes sour. Priestley also established that if water in which “binding air” is dissolved is boiled or frozen, the gas evaporates and the water is cleared of it. And, among other things, he showed that plants absorb “binding air” and release “vital air” (oxygen). This still unexplored “life air” supports the breathing of animals; in its presence, substances burn intensely.

Now it was necessary to obtain “life air”. But how to do this? Perhaps it is released by nitric acid? Its salts, such as saltpeter, also promote combustion. After all, gunpowder is made from saltpeter. If you heat copper wire with dilute nitric acid, perhaps “life air” will be released?

Priestley began to experiment diligently. He took a thick glass tube, sealed it at one end, filled it with mercury and, holding it with his finger, plunged the open end into a shaft of mercury. Then, connecting another tube containing nitric acid and copper filings to a tube filled with mercury, he began to heat the mixture of reagents. After a short time, bubbles of colorless gas began to displace the mercury from the tube, and it began to fill with a new substance. Priestley carefully took out his pipe and, uncorking it, bent down to sniff. And suddenly he froze, amazed: the colorless gas began to evaporate, before our eyes turning into another - reddish-brown vapor, the pungent smell of which was reminiscent of the smell of nitric acid.

Is this really a new type of air?

Indeed, Priestley obtained a new colorless gas, which he called at that time dephlogisticated nitrate air. This gas, in contact with atmospheric oxygen, instantly turned into nitrogen dioxide.

However, Priestley was never able to obtain the “life air”. True, as a result of his experiments he discovered two new gases. And yet the scientist did not lose hope and continued to experiment. He worked with many more compounds, but always got some new gas. At that time, no one knew about them, and Priestley gave them his own names - “alkaline air” (ammonia), “hydrochloric acid air” (hydrogen chloride), sulfur dioxide ...

Many years later. Priestley continued to study gases, observed the fermentation process, systematized observations and drew conclusions. He spoke about his research in a voluminous work. "On the different types of air." Priestley described research carried out by other scientists - Joseph Black, Stephen Gales and Henry Cavendish, and yet most of the data he obtained and described were new and significantly enriched the chemistry of gases.

Priestley, as in his younger years, worked following a strict daily routine. At certain times, he left the laboratory and went to his office to continue working on the “History of Light” or philosophical treatises. He usually spent the evening with his family. Sitting comfortably in a chair by the fireplace, Priestley asked his wife about his day, checked his daughter’s homework, or played with his four-year-old son. Joseph's brother Timothy, who came to visit, often brightened up their evenings. Priestley always spoke lively and enthusiastically, he often told funny jokes and smiled contentedly, seeing how those around him laughed. However, even during these pleasant hours of rest, the scientist did not part with his pen. There was always a notebook on his lap, and in between times, when there was silence, he would always write something. Priestley created most of his literary works in such moments.

Priestley's research in chemistry and physics brought him fame. In 1772 he was elected an honorary member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Not many scientists have received this honor. In December of the same year, he was visited by William Fitz-Maurice Petty, Lord Shelburne, one of the most senior political figures in England. He offered Priestley a well-paid job on his personal estates.

I would like to offer you a job in my library. Most of the books are in Calne, others are in Berkeley Square in London. I know your interests are very varied, so in addition to your £150 salary you will receive £40 specifically for research work. I place at your disposal the house in Calne and some of the rooms in the London house.

Priestley agreed. Working in the library and studying with the owner's sons took up his morning hours. He devoted his afternoons entirely to his scientific research. The scientist zealously developed the phlogiston theory and stubbornly continued to study gases. Now hydrogen caught his attention. This colorless gas was produced by the interaction of metals with acids and burned without a residue (Priestley did not notice the water formed during this process). In his opinion, combustion was a decomposition process (the main view of supporters of the phlogiston theory), and for a number of years he believed that hydrogen was an undiscovered phlogiston.

To be able to collect the gases in their pure form, Priestley filled the vessels not with water, but with mercury. This was an important innovation: gases soluble in water could also be collected in this way. In his laboratory there was a large bathtub filled with mercury. This wonderful metal could be obtained from mercury ash, which, however, was dephlogisticated mercury, which meant that when heated, phlogiston was also absorbed.

With money received from Lord Shelburne, Priestley bought a large glass lens. It was necessary to check what effect light has on mercury ash. Maybe phlogiston is light? After all, its release is accompanied by the appearance of a flame.

August 1, 1774 arrived. The day was sunny and therefore convenient for carrying out the experiment. Priestley placed a thick layer of yellow powder - mercury salt - at the bottom of a large flask and directed the sun's rays, collected and concentrated by a lens, onto it. The rays formed a dazzling light spot on the powder. Priestley looked at him carefully and suddenly noticed a strange phenomenon: small specks of dust were slightly crackling and jumping, as if someone was blowing on them. A few minutes later, the first small drops of mercury appeared at this place.

It turns out that light is phlogiston! Or maybe the phlogiston remained in the glass vessel?

Priestley lit a splinter and brought it into the flask to ignite the phlogiston. What a surprise! The gas ignited, and the flame became even stronger and brighter. He quickly took out the splinter and extinguished the flame, but the smoldering splinter flared up again.

New air?!

Priestley could not immediately begin studying the new gas: he had to accompany Lord Shelburne on his trip to Europe. Soon they left for Holland. Their journey through the countries of Europe dragged on for a long time, although it was not without pleasant impressions. In addition to Holland, they visited Belgium, Germany, and France.

Priestley's arrival was awaited in Paris with great impatience. Immediately upon arrival, he visited the Academy of Sciences, where he told scientists about his research on gases. There he met with Lavoisier, continuing the conversation in his laboratory.

Lavoisier knew about Priestley's research; he monitored all publications of English scientists and compiled abstracts of their work in French. However, he had his own interpretation of the facts, which sometimes differed sharply from Priestley's point of view. The meeting of the two scientists was necessary for both and helped a lot in their further work. They discussed many issues, among which the main focus was on combustion. Lavoisier was looking for the correct explanation for this phenomenon, since he understood the inconsistency of the phlogiston theory, unlike Priestley - he was a supporter of phlogiston. During the conversation, Priestley revealed to Lavoisier the secret of the new gas and showed his French colleague the methods for obtaining it. Lavoisier realized that the study of this gas would shed light on many unclear questions, and immediately began to study it.

Priestley returned to England in early November 1774. Following Lavoisier, he also began to study the properties of the new gas. After a few months, he was able to establish that this gas is contained in the air, is purer than it and supports not only respiration, but also combustion. This was oxygen, which Priestley called dephlogisticated air.

Priestley established that another gas can be obtained from ordinary air - “phlogisticated air” (nitrogen), which does not support respiration and combustion, but is not “binding air” because it is not absorbed by alkaline solutions. These discoveries allowed him to express his opinion regarding the composition of air. He believed that air consisted of nitric acid and earth, so highly saturated with phlogiston that they turned into “air” (gas). Priestley adhered to this erroneous view until the end of his life. Even the successful development of chemical science, which owed him the discovery of oxygen, could not convince the scientist, a faithful supporter of the phlogiston theory.

However, on the basis of this discovery, Lavoisier revolutionized chemistry and marked the beginning of a new era in its development.

For many years, scientists have argued about who has priority in the discovery of oxygen and its properties.

Priestley was the first to discover oxygen and reported it to Lavoisier. Independently, the Swedish scientist Carl Wilhelm Scheele also discovered and studied oxygen, but published the results of his research three years later. He also developed several new methods for producing oxygen. Lavoisier also studied oxygen, but his merit lies mainly in the fact that he connected the problem of studying oxygen with questions of combustion, created a new oxygen theory of combustion, dealt a crushing blow to the phlogiston theory and opened the way to the development of modern chemistry.

Priestley was let down by blind faith in the phlogiston theory. It is no coincidence that Georges Cuvier very aptly said on this matter: “Priestley is the father of modern chemistry. However, he never recognized his own daughter.” In the last years of his life, Priestley continued his research into gases, respiration and plant physiology. He found that the gas released in the form of bubbles on some algae is oxygen and its amount increases during the day and decreases at night.

By this time, Priestley's relationship with Lord Shelburne had deteriorated, and therefore he decided to move to Birmingham: Priestley's wife's brother, John Wilkinson, lived there. He provided his brother-in-law's family with a large country house. It was spacious and comfortable. Priestley spent several hours a day in the garden: digging the ground, planting and watering plants. He was helped in this by his older children - a daughter and two sons, Joseph and William. The wife usually worked with the youngest, Henry.

A few months after moving to Birmingham, Priestley receives a position in the church parish: he is now again a pastor. His friends, knowing that the church could not provide the scientist with the necessary funds for scientific research, organized a collection of money in his favor. Joseph Priestley - an honorary member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, academies of sciences in Turin, St. Petersburg, Harlem - needed funds!

The wealthy widow Elizabeth Rayner donated 100 guineas; Priestley's friend Wedgwood, a ceramic manufacturer, provided an annual subsidy and supplied Priestley with all the equipment necessary for the laboratory. Optician Samuel Parker from London delivered him a variety of glass instruments and vessels... Many tried to help the scientist.

In Birmingham, Priestley continued his research on oxygen and the life of algae. Now an assistant, William Beeley, worked next to him in the laboratory.

In 1781, Priestley began studying the effect of an electric spark on gases. He conducted the experiments together with John Waltyre, who had also been studying gases for a number of years. The new electric machine was very powerful, and the sparks it produced caused amazing phenomena. In a short time, scientists managed to decompose “alkaline air” (ammonia) into phlogiston (hydrogen) and “phlogisticated air” (nitrogen). Passing sparks through a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, they noticed that drops of “dew” formed on the walls of the vessel. Priestley was unable to use these experiments for a new discovery, but they formed the basis for the work of Henry Cavendish, who, by repeating them and making more accurate measurements, was able to establish that water is not an element, but a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. During one of his trips to London, Priestley met Cavendish and learned about his discovery.

Two years later, at one of the meetings of the Birmingham Society of Scientists, Priestley learned that James Watt was also conducting similar research.

It's clear that water is not a simple element, Watt said. - This is a compound, and it consists of dephlogisticated air and phlogiston.

“Henry Cavendish also claims the same,” Priestley noted.

Cavendish? - Watt exclaimed excitedly. - How do you know this?

Even the year before, during one of our meetings, he told me about his experiences and expressed the same point of view.

Can't be! I have also been working for more than two years. It's impossible for him to know about this! Maybe I'm being deceived?

Both Watt and Cavendish disputed the priority of this discovery, but the fact of the discovery is always more important for the development of science. So, another centuries-old misconception was thrown aside: from now on, water was considered a complex compound, and not a simple element.

Priestley did not take part in the dispute about the composition of water, because for him water remained a mysterious substance. Later he studied the oxidation of iron and the reduction of iron oxide with hydrogen. His experiments were very accurate in terms of not only quantitative measurements, but also the determination of the substances formed as a result of the reaction. Priestley found that “flammable air” (hydrogen) when heated turns iron ash into metallic iron, and the resulting gases contain water. However, he rejected Lavoisier's theory of the connection between the oxidation and reduction of metal oxides.

Water is found in all gases, including “flammable air”. If the latter combines with iron ash, then metal is formed, and water is released in free form, Priestley argued.

Cavendish’s experiments say the same thing,” Watt assured him. - Gases contain water. When they decompose with the help of an electric spark, other substances are formed and water is released.

In essence, Cavendish decomposes "dephlogisticated" (oxygen) and "flammable air" (hydrogen), causing the water they contain to be released.

Both scientists stubbornly supported the phlogiston theory and, relying on it, tried to explain phenomena occurring in nature. Together they discussed the results of their experiments, drew conclusions, and rejected Lavoisier’s new ideas - ideas that in the near future would become the only correct basis for advanced scientific thought.

Priestley continued to work. He studied a number of flammable gases, which he combined under the general name “flammable air”: these were hydrogen, carbon monoxide and some flammable gaseous organic compounds. In one of his articles, Priestley described their properties in detail, but still did not see the difference between them and often confused them.

Priestley was also interested in the issue of electrical conductivity of gases. In 1789 he began to study the effect of temperature on the conductivity of gases. However, the echoes of the French Revolution reached England and postponed this work of the scientist for a while.

Priestley greeted the news of revolutionary events in France with delight. He knew this country for a long time and loved its freedom-loving people. Priestley followed the unfolding political events with great attention and interest. In his philosophical lectures he proclaimed the triumph of reason. The Industrial Revolution in England required fundamental social changes. An opponent of absolutism, who in his articles and speeches welcomed the breakdown of old social relations, Priestley aroused hatred of himself on the part of the English aristocracy. Now not only the church, but also many representatives of the ruling class angrily attacked the scientist, accusing him of plagiarism, shamelessly declaring that he had not brought anything significant to science. Priestley did not give up: his philosophical, literary, political, and theological articles appeared one after another. In his speeches, calls for reforms were increasingly heard. The scientist opposed the shameful slave trade, which doomed thousands of blacks to suffering and a hungry existence full of deprivation and humiliation.

Freedom, equality, fraternity - these are the ideals of the new society. It was about them that he spoke in his sermon on the eve of 1791. In England, the number of supporters of the French Revolution grew every day. The Constitutional Society was created to fight for reform in England. A few months after its founding, members of the society decided to solemnly celebrate July 14, the day of the storming of the Bastille. Priestley certainly wanted to take part in the celebration and invited his friends to do so. However, much to his surprise, William Haten flatly refused.

The situation is turbulent now, Dr. Priestley. Attending such a celebration may cause unwanted resonance.

I see no reason for concern. Honoring the anniversary of this significant event is an important political act.

Yes, that is precisely why he is dangerous.

Haten was not mistaken. On July 10, preachers of the English church publicly declared Priestley a heretic and “an associate of the devil.” They also branded with shame the constitutionalists who allegedly “sought to plunge England into the abyss of destruction and misfortune.”

On July 14, early in the morning, physics teacher Adam Walker arrived at Priestley's house from London. They had just begun the conversation when Mrs. Priestley entered her husband’s office.

Joe, a note for you. It's from your friend Russell.

Priestley read the message.

The situation is really getting serious. I am warned and dissuaded from taking part in the celebration. What does it mean?

“We still need to take Russell’s advice,” said the alarmed wife.

Let's think about it. There is still a lot of time left before the celebration.

Perhaps it would be wiser to stay at home, Mr. Priestley? - suggested the guest.

Let's not get upset over trifles. Please, Mr. Walker, to the laboratory.

They spent the morning in the scientist's laboratory having a pleasant conversation. However, it was not possible to discuss all the issues during this time and Priestley decided to continue the conversation after lunch. It was already getting dark when Priestley, having seen his interlocutor off, entered the spacious hall, where his wife and three sons were waiting for him. The daughter, having got married, settled separately from the family.

Mary, would you like to play a game of chess?

With pleasure.

At this time something terrible was happening in Birmingham. Members of the constitutional council met at Thomas Dudley's hotel: lunch and speeches lasted until late in the evening. Meanwhile, the streets were clogged with crowds of people. Enraged people, incited by the clergy, moved towards the hotel.

Revolutionaries! - Screams were heard from all sides. Stones and logs flew into the hotel windows, broken glass rang, broken doors fell with a roar... The crowd burst into the hall, but they found no one there. The meeting participants secretly left the building and decided to take refuge in the New Meeting Church.

Let's go to the "New Meeting"! - the crowd roared. - They hid there!

Terrible blows shook the walls of the “New Meeting”. They broke everything they could get their hands on, even setting fire to the benches for the parishioners.

This is not the temple of God, but the den of the devil! Here Satan, emitting lightning, swore to him!

The flames of the fire engulfed the roof, dispersing the twilight that had descended on the city.

We must punish him too, the shameless atheist! - and the crowd rushed to Priestley’s house.

Priestley peered into the distance with alarm: the screams and fire in the city did not bode well. Suddenly an alarming knock was heard on the locked gate. The eldest son Joseph ran out into the garden.

“What do you need,” he asked the newcomer excitedly, without, however, opening the gate.

Mr. Russell has sent a covered wagon for you. We must leave here immediately,” he heard in response.

Maybe they’ll calm down and won’t get to our house,” Priestley said hopefully.

There is not a moment to lose, father! We're leaving immediately.

Half an hour after their departure, a crowd broke into the scientist’s house. The gates cracked and fell from strong blows. A hail of stones flew through the windows. Everything in Priestley's house was subjected to barbaric destruction. The equipment that the great scientist personally made with such love and diligence instantly turned into a pile of rubble. The maddened crowd did not spare Priestley’s unique library; rare books, set on fire by someone, and priceless manuscripts were on fire.

The unrest in Birmingham continued for several months. Priestley could not even think about returning to the city. He spent some time after the tragedy with his friends, and in the fall he became a pastor in Hackney.

The events in England caused an explosion of indignation throughout the world. Many prominent scientists from England, France, Germany, and Sweden expressed their solidarity and sympathy for Priestley. In September 1792, he was proclaimed an honorary citizen of France, received an offer to be elected as a deputy to the National Convention, dozens of well-wishers and admirers sent money to England to restore the scientist’s laboratory and library.

Life in Hackney flowed calmly and happily, but in the evenings, when the whole family gathered around the fireplace, they more than once returned to the idea of ​​leaving England: the wound received in their native country was deep and had to be treated away from home.

In August 1793, Priestley's sons sailed to America. The house was empty, and there were no more intimate evening conversations by the fireplace. Mrs. Priestley cried often.

Joseph and William are already adults, but Henry is just a boy. His health is not very good. What are they doing there now?

“They are completely independent people and will settle down well there,” Priestley used to say, looking affectionately at his wife. - Calm down, don't worry.

No. I can not. I will only calm down when I am next to them.

On April 7, 1794, in the port of Sansam, Priestley and his wife boarded an ocean-going ship and sailed to New York.

Priestley did not like the noisy city. Having rested from the journey, which lasted almost two months, they left for Pennsylvania, where the eldest son had his own farm. The scientist liked the small town of Northumberland. He built his own house, but life in it did not bring happiness: his youngest son Henry died of tuberculosis. The following year, the scientist’s wife also died of grief, grieving for her beloved son.

Priestley moved to live with his eldest son Joseph. He spent most of his time in his office, among books and manuscripts. The discoveries he made had to be explained and comprehended from the point of view of phlogiston theory.

No! He could not accept the ideas that Lavoisier proclaimed! After all, this would destroy the philosophical concept that gave strength to the researcher and thinker Priestley throughout his life. Is it really possible that now, towards the end of his life, he should give up phlogiston?! Could he destroy in an instant what he had been building all his life? Bent over his desk, Priestley wrote and wrote... Philosophy now became his main hobby.

Sometimes he sat down in the shade under a branchy oak tree to rest and breathe fresh air. Usually at such moments his beloved granddaughter Eliza ran up to him and asked in a thin voice:

Tell me a story, grandpa.

I'm busy, my child. I need to write.

Do you write fairy tales, grandfather?

Fairy tales, but for adults - for learned people...

The book on phlogiston was published in 1803 in Philadelphia. That same year, Priestley was offered the chancellorship of the newly opened University of Pennsylvania; he flatly refused. Dr Priestley wrote tirelessly. One of his last works was “Reflections on Phlogiston.” A few months after completing the manuscript, Joseph Priestley died. This happened on February 6, 1804."

Having finished the story and pursing her lips mournfully, Miss Parkes kept her eyes fixed on the lens. The guests were silent. Then the hostess took a deep breath and continued with excitement in her voice:

My friends, time is merciless to the greatest minds of mankind. Fourteen years later, when Joseph Priestley Jr. decided to leave Pennsylvania, all of Dr. Priestley's belongings went under the hammer. His library - about four thousand volumes - was sold for next to nothing at auction. Only the electric machine survived, which was purchased in Nantwich and is now the property of Mr. James Martino. Priestley's second electric machine is kept in the museum of the Royal Society of London. My treasure - the lens - you just had the good fortune to see.

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Biography, preaching activities

Born in the town of Fieldhead near the English city, in the family of a weaver. Due to financial difficulties, the parents gave the boy to be raised by his aunt. Joseph began to show early ability for science, and his aunt decided to give him a good education so that he could later become a scientist. Due to the fact that Priestley's religious views differed from the views of supporters, he entered the academy in (), where he received his education. This academy trained priests who were opponents of the Anglican Church. Thanks to the care of his aunt and his own diligence, by the time he graduated from the academy, Priestley was a well-educated person for his time, familiar not only with the works, but also with the works of modern and ancient philosophers. He studied nine foreign languages ​​- , .

After some time, Priestley tries himself in the teaching field at the private school he opened. However, his talent as a teacher was fully revealed after he began working as a teacher at Warington Academy. During this period, Priestley began to study, success in which later brought him international fame. Then Priestley met with, who approved the young teacher's interest in the problems.

Works in the field of physics of electricity

Priestley's work became widely known in scientific circles. Priestley was elected honorary doctor, member, foreign member of the Paris and.

Social and philosophical activities

Despite international recognition, Priestley was forced to move from city to city throughout his life in search of decently paid work. He lived the longest in , where he performed the duties of a parish priest, and in his free time he conducted chemical experiments. In this city, Priestley participated in the work of the so-called “Lunar Society,” whose members were interested in scientific problems, mainly in natural science. Meetings of this society took place once a month on Mondays preceding the full moon - hence the name of the society. The Society included people interested in science, regardless of their religious and political views. “We do not care,” said Priestley, “about the political and religious principles of each of us: we are united by a common love of science, which is enough, in our opinion, to unite everyone without distinction - Christians, Jews, pagans, monarchists and republicans.” .

Priestley adhered to philosophical and political views that were very progressive for the second half of the 18th century and was actively involved in their propaganda. In philosophy, he was a supporter, although he believed that the laws of the material world were created by the divine mind (). From the beginning, Priestley defended with great passion the right of the people to revolt and overthrow tyranny. He became a member of the Friends of the Revolution society and, as a preacher, promoted the ideas of equality and brotherhood, defended freedom of conscience and religious tolerance. Priestley's openness, that is, his denial, caused particular indignation; he participated in the creation of the first Unitarian Church in Great Britain, wrote articles in its support and preached sermons himself; at that time these views could be regarded as.

This activity, as well as Priestley's ardent sympathies for the ideas of the French Revolution, aroused hatred of him from conservatives. , when a group of his friends assembled at his home to mark the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, the civil and ecclesiastical authorities of Birmingham

(1733-1804) English chemist

Joseph Priestley's life was unusually hectic and colorful. Although he received a theological education, his discoveries in chemistry determined its development for many decades to come. It can be said that Priestley was the first representative of the chemistry of gases, and it was his work that made it possible to make a genuine revolution in this science in the second half of the 18th century.

Joseph Priestley was born on a small farm near the English city of Leeds. His father was a clothier, and the family barely made ends meet. When Joseph was nine years old, his father handed him over to be raised by his aunt, his mother’s older sister, who owned a small estate.

Home teachers began working with Joseph. In just a year, the boy was so prepared that he was able to enter a Calvinist elementary school. Priestley soon became her best student. He excelled primarily in the study of ancient languages: at the age of thirteen, Joseph Priestley was fluent in Hebrew and Greek. Four years later, he completed the course first on the list.

The aunt was going to send Joseph to the academy, but due to nervous overload the boy developed a tuberculosis process. So she moved him to the neighboring town of Lis-bon, where he settled in his uncle's house and began studying at a financial school. Over time, Joseph's health improved and he also began studying with a local pastor. With his help, the young man deepened his knowledge of the Hebrew language and also studied Arabic.

In the summer of 1751, Joseph Priestley entered the Calvinist Theological Academy in Deventry. In addition to theological disciplines, philosophy and natural science were taught there. It was while studying at the academy that Priestley learned about the existence of chemistry and physics and immediately became interested in these sciences.

He soon became one of the best students at the academy and, having graduated in the fall of 1755, despite his young age, was invited to the post of rector of the Protestant cathedral in the city of Suffolk.

For a recent graduate of the academy, such an appointment was very flattering. However, just a few months later, Joseph Priestley leaves Suffolk and moves to the small English town of Natwich. The change was caused by the fact that in Natwich he had to combine the duties of a pastor with teaching at a church school. Shortly before his appointment, Priestley got married and desperately needed an increase in his salary.

Within a few months, the school where he taught became the best in the area. Local residents vied with each other to send their children there. Joseph Priestley not only taught schoolchildren to read and write, but also told them about the world around them, accompanying classes with demonstrations of various experiments. He spent all the money allocated for school on the purchase of books and various instruments, and spent all his free time in the school laboratory.

However, five years later, a commission that came to the school accused Priestley of freethinking and banned him from serving in the church. At the invitation of friends, Priestley moved to Warrington and became a teacher of ancient languages ​​at the local university.

At that time, Joseph Priestley was engaged in self-education a lot. He began by taking a chemistry course with his students. What he heard made such an impression on him that he decided to begin studying natural history, while simultaneously engaging in chemical and physical research.

Joseph Priestley's first serious work was the study of the problem of electrical conductivity. The scientist found that all substances and materials can be divided into two groups: conductive and non-conducting electricity. He discovered that graphite, coal and glass heated red-hot conduct electricity as well as metal.

On the advice of Benjamin Franklin, Priestley wrote the monograph “The History of the Doctrine of Electricity.” Following its publication, he was elected an honorary doctorate from the University of Edinburgh and a fellow of the Royal Society of London. It is curious that his book was translated into Russian, and the scientist himself was elected a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Now Joseph Priestley's position has been strengthened; he has become a recognized authority in natural science and one of the leading teachers of the academy. True, his financial situation has not changed. To get extra money, the scientist had to rent out half the rooms in his house.

However, with the help of friends, he managed to get permission to preach sermons. Priestley becomes a priest again, and the family's situation gradually improves. But he still devotes all his free time to science, intensively studying chemistry. The scientist noticed that animals placed in sealed vessels quickly died. After a series of experiments, Priestley realized that during the breathing process the composition of the air changes.

Gradually, he discovered that as a result of breathing or burning in the air, a substance appears that is easily absorbed by water, and at the same time a solution is formed that tastes sour. The scientist also realized that this substance promotes the development of plants, which release “vital air” during growth.

After several dozen experiments, Joseph Priestley managed to isolate two components of ordinary air, which he conventionally designated as “vital” and “non-vital”. Just a few years after Priestley's death, it was discovered that these names should be understood as the two gases that make up the bulk of the atmosphere - oxygen and nitrogen.

Joseph Priestley regularly published his works, which became known to scientists not only in his country. In 1772 he was elected an honorary member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. In December of the same year, his position changed radically: Lord Shelburne invited him to become his personal librarian. The scientist was given his own house on the lord's country estate and part of the rooms in Shelburne's London estate at his disposal. He got the opportunity to buy scientific literature and equipment necessary for experiments.

Joseph Priestley was also to study physics and chemistry with the lord's sons. At the Shelburne estate he made another discovery. The scientist isolated pure hydrogen for the first time in the world. True, in accordance with the ideas of that time, he decided that he had managed to obtain the so-called phlogiston - a substance that is present in all flammable objects.

Together with Lord Shelburne, Priestley made a long trip through European countries. He was especially well received in France. The scientist was elected a member of the French Academy and, as a sign of special respect, received French citizenship. Returning to England, the scientist continued to live on Shelburne's estate. However, he soon leaves him because his wife's father unexpectedly died, and Priestley inherited a large estate near Birmingham, where he worked for more than ten years. In the fall of 1793, he had to leave England due to the outbreak of the French Revolution: the scientist retained French citizenship and therefore feared arrest.

In 1794, Joseph Priestley and his family moved to America and settled in the town of Northumberland. There the scientist lived the last ten years of his life. Although Priestley stopped working in the laboratory due to his old age, he was still able to publish several books. But life in America did not bring him happiness. Soon after the move, his youngest son died of tuberculosis, and the following year, his wife too. Priestley moved in with the family of his eldest son.

Shortly before his death, he was offered to become rector of the University of Pennsylvania. But the scientist was forced to refuse, because he no longer had the strength for such active work. Nevertheless, he was solemnly proclaimed honorary rector of the university.

PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH(Priestley, Joseph) (1733–1804), English chemist and philosopher, one of the founders of “pneumatic chemistry.” Born on March 13, 1733 in Fieldhead (near Leeds, Yorkshire) in the family of a clothier. He studied theology and even preached sermons in the Protestant community. In 1752 he entered the Theological Academy in Deventry, where, in addition to theology, he studied philosophy, natural science, and studied languages ​​- French, Italian, Latin, German, Ancient Greek, Arabic, Syriac, Chaldean, Hebrew. In 1755 he became a priest, but was accused of freethinking. In 1761 Priestley moved to Warrington, where he taught languages ​​at the university and wrote a course Basic English Grammar(Rudiments of English Grammer), which was published and used as a textbook for almost 50 years. At Warrington University he studied natural science and attended his first course of lectures in chemistry. A few years later he returned to Leeds, where he set up a home laboratory. From Leeds he regularly traveled to London. During one of these trips, he met the famous American scientist and politician B. Franklin, at whose suggestion he wrote a monograph in 1767 History of the doctrine of electricity (The History and Present State of Electricity), in which he summarized everything that was known in this field at that time and described his own experiments. For this work he was elected an honorary doctor of the University of Edinburgh, and later a member of the Royal Society of London.

Also in 1767, Priestley began his chemical experiments. The scientist became interested in “air”, which is released in abundance during the fermentation of wort and does not support respiration and combustion. While studying this gas, Priestley made a remarkable discovery in 1771: he noticed that green plants in the light continue to live in the atmosphere of this gas and even make it suitable for breathing. Priestley's classic experiment with live mice under a hood, where the air is “refreshed” by green branches, was included in all elementary natural science textbooks and lies at the origins of the doctrine of photosynthesis. This “bound air” - carbon dioxide - was discovered 15 years before Priestley by J. Black, but it was Priestley who studied it in more detail and isolated it in its pure form. In 1772–1774, Priestley studied in detail the “hydrochloric acid air” he obtained from the interaction of table salt and sulfuric acid - hydrogen chloride, which he collected over mercury. By acting on copper with dilute nitric acid, he obtained “nitrate air” - nitric oxide; In air, this colorless gas turned brown, turning into nitrogen dioxide. Priestley also discovered nitrous oxide. His next discovery was “alkaline air” - ammonia.

Priestley's greatest contribution to the chemistry of gases was his discovery of oxygen. The scientist observed its release when heating a solid substance under a glass cover without access to air using a large biconvex lens. The gas was collected by him in a bottle of mercury. On August 1, 1774, he tried to separate air from mercury scale. Out of curiosity, Priestley introduced a smoldering candle into the collected gas, and it flared up unusually brightly. Priestley himself, being a supporter of the phlogiston theory, was never able to explain the essence of the combustion process; he defended his ideas even after Lavoisier unveiled a new theory of combustion.

Priestley took an active part in political life, enthusiastically welcomed the French Revolution of 1789, and was an active member of the Society of Friends of the Revolution. On July 14, 1791, when Priestley and his associates gathered at his house to celebrate the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, the crowd burned the laboratory and library. Priestley moved to London, and in 1794 emigrated to the USA.

The Englishman Joseph Priestley, a chemist, naturalist, philosopher and part-time priest, was the first in the world to produce sparkling water in 1767. However, gas drinks entered mass production much later.

The history of the carbonated drink

Frequently visiting a neighboring brewer, Joseph Priestley noticed the fermentation of beer wort. As a scientist studying gases, his attention was attracted by the bubbles that were released.

Confident in the healing properties of the gas emitted, the priest tried to catch the vapors with glassware, but was not happy with the result. Deciding to act differently, he placed a couple of containers with mineral water directly above the wort. After waiting for some time, Priestley tasted the result of his experiments.

The result was amazing - the scientist expected to make a medicine, but what he got was a pleasant drink that tickled the tongue and nose! Soon they managed to make a whole bottle of real soda. Still hoping for the miraculous properties of his discovery, Joseph, five years later, read a report on the possible benefits of water saturated with carbon dioxide in the treatment of scurvy.

Impressed by the performance, the French Academy of Sciences accepted Priestley into its ranks. Soon the inventor published a book about his discovery. It was after this publication about this discovery that carbonated H2O went to the people, and the inventor was awarded a medal from the Royal Society.

From the artisanal method of saturating water with carbon dioxide “on the knee,” the production of soda was transferred to a technically more advanced area by Torbern Bergman, a scientist from Sweden. He created an apparatus that made it possible to saturate a liquid with carbon dioxide under pressure. Naming the device saturator, the inventor conveniently forgot about its existence, because he simply did not know what to do next.

New revolution and first sales

Only 13 years later, a watchmaker, jeweler and another inventor living in Switzerland, Johann Jacob Schwepp, improved the Bergman saturator. Schwepp began to produce carbonated, but still unsweetened, drinks on an industrial scale. He was pushed into action by his dream of creating non-alcoholic champagne.

After some time, Schwepp decided to reduce the cost and simplify production. Instead of real carbon dioxide, they began to use regular baking soda. This is how soda, beloved by the British, appeared. In 1792, the industrialist founded the Schwepp & Co company, which still exists today and is known as Schweppes.

It was only 14 years after the death of Jacob Schwepp that sweet lemonade was introduced for the first time. And soon they began to add fruit juices and recently discovered and isolated citric acid to the drink.

In 1851, production became so widespread that at the Great London Exhibition, which the company supplied with drinks, a fountain filled with Schwepp & Co soda was organized. By the way, this fountain still adorns the Schweppes logo.

No less accidentally and jointly, it was invented, which was later called popsicle.